Author: Aleksandar

Income Distribution

 3.1.2.2.7           Income Distribution   

 

In the capitalist economy, the distribution of income is regulated by privileged owners of the means of production, whose subjectivity diminishes the contributions of workers in the process of production as much as they can, which creates the exploitation of workers, bringing problems to society

 

In socialism, the level of income of each worker is based on the objective price of labour and the achieved productivity. In socialism, equal human rights require the commune to provide income to all residents to secure their living.

 

All commune residents are involved in the income distribution system except workers in private companies because they retain their profits. Private companies will pay taxes like they do today. These taxes belong to the people of the commune. They are used, among other things, for the salaries of all the commune inhabitants.

 

The level of income can be determined by a coefficient with the following formula:  

C-Income = (Work price) x C-income_W x C-income_E x C-income_C

Work price = (Value of past labour) x (Value of current labour)

The work price is determined by the product of the number of past labour points of a worker and the cost of current work. The quantity of points that each worker holds is equal to the value of their past labour and past work they inherited from their ancestors. The amount of labour past points is the specific condition of the system where the worker with a higher value of past labour realizes a proportionately higher income, irrespective of what work they are performing. Past labour points present a humanistic form of shares that will bring profit based on the value of past work. Such a profit may be significant, but it will not burden companies because it will be distributed on the commune level, as explained in the chapter “Commodity price.” 

 

Each worker autonomously determines the price of current labour by comparing the work conveniences and inconveniences with other forms of work. They ensure the objectivity in valuing the current work price by the work competition where the right to work is exercised by the worker who, in the circumstances of equal productivity, asks for a lower current work price.  

 

In socialism, all inhabitants realize the safety of their survival by income, and it is, therefore, necessary to also set the current work price of unemployed inhabitants. Since unemployed inhabitants of the commune do not perform any profit or non-profit job, they cannot autonomously set the costs of their current work (Every activity will be considered as work). The price of the current work of unemployed people will be determined by the commune’s leadership with the consent of the assembly of the commune. It will be done according to the commune’s working needs and economic possibilities. More precisely, to enable a balance between the supply of and demand for the work in the commune. If the commune’s inhabitants were not sufficiently interested in work, the leadership would reduce the price of current work for the unemployed population. This would result in their lower income, which would increase interest in the work of the inhabitants.

 

Conversely, if the interest in work by workers was excessive, the leadership may increase the current work price of the unemployed, and the workers’ interest in work based on income would go down. The commune management may give a higher price for current work to children and students, stimulating education. The commune’s social policy regulates the price of current work for invalids and older people. The people in this commune will no longer need a pension plan as retirement insurance because the new system provides individuals with an income regardless of whether they work. Besides, the individual will be able to work if they wish or can without limit of their age. 

 

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Finally, the level of income of each worker depends on the C-of income. The C-of income of each worker depends on the proportion of realized and envisaged productivity of workers, enterprises, and the whole commune in the function of workers’ accountability for the realized productivity. The following formula can present the C-of income of a worker:  

C-income-W establishes the relation of the realized and envisaged workers’ productivity in the function of workers’ accountability.  

 

Productivity is expressed in any accepted work values that indicate the quantity and quality of products in profit enterprises and services in non-profit work organizations. Where productivity cannot be precisely established by the quantity and quality of products or services, it can be determined by mutual evaluations of the labour productivity of workers. The system of assessment can be designed to allow the range of evaluations to indicate work productivity in the same way as in the case of the exact establishment of the quantity and quality of produced commodities.  

 

The mutual assessment of inhabitants brings each inhabitant an equal power of decision-making, which introduces a new form of anarchic-democratic behaviour in the society. Thanks to equal assessing power, each individual may become both a prosecutor and the accused without the right to complain. The impact of individual assessment on the population’s income cannot be significant. Quite to the contrary, it will be minor because the accused will not have the right to defend themselves; however, it will be sufficiently strong to make people respect each other. Such respect will pave the way for significant conveniences in society. The assessment system will force the individual to diminish their shortcomings and augment their virtues in their behaviour toward the community in the broadest sense.  

 

Suppose the realized productivity equals the necessary productivity, then the C-income-W = 1. In that case, the realized income will correspond to the envisaged income. If people do not receive any evaluation, they will be considered as they performed the needed productivity. If the realized productivity is higher or lower than the required one, the worker’s income will be higher or lower than the envisaged.  

 

Finally, the C-income-W level depends on the C-responsibility of a worker determined by the workers themselves. Mathematically, a function can be defined that will bring the worker who declares small K-responsibilities approximately the income he sought regardless of the productivity achieved. With an increase in K-responsibility, his income will increase in the event of an increase in his productivity or decrease in the event of a reduction of his productivity. Higher K-responsibility gives more competitive power to do any work.

 

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The income of workers will also depend on the productivity of the enterprise. Enterprise productivity may be shown the same way as a worker’s productivity. The formula may have the following form:   

C-income_E establishes the relation of the realized and envisaged enterprise productivity in the function of the worker’s responsibility.  

 

The productivity of enterprises is shown by the realized profit on the market. Profit represents the most efficient way for assessing productivity, or more precisely, the values of the result of work in present-day society. 

 

Workers realize the envisaged income in the case of the realization of the envisaged productivity or, to say it differently, if they sell the current production on the market. But, of course, that would require a high speed in assets turnover or, practically, production for known customers. It is challenging to sell all the produced commodities during the accounting period. Some portion of such output will be sold in another accounting period, thus realizing its profit in another accounting period. However, it may be assumed that the commodities remaining from the past labour period are sold in the current accounting period and generate profit in the current period.  

 

If the profit an enterprise realizes on the market is equal to the envisaged profit, then the C-income_E will be equal to 1 (one). The enterprise’s realized income will be identical to the envisaged. If the formula establishes a C-of income_E larger or smaller than 1 (one), then the enterprise’s revenue will be proportionately larger or smaller than the envisaged ones.

 

The system of work competition in the labour market ensures an even distribution of employment benefits and disadvantages in each company. But if one company has a significantly better means of production than another company, employees in the better-equipped company might achieve a higher income than workers in the company with outdated technology. In this case, workers would be more interested in working in better-equipped companies. Therefore, the commune’s leadership will organize production in enterprises of the commune so that an equal value of work based on productivity and past labour points achieves equivalent income. In this matter, managers may improve technology in companies with redundant equipment or may overflow the incomes between companies to ensure a uniform income interest of workers in all workplaces.

 

It is further possible to regulate with the coefficient of productivity other forms of success of the production, which cannot be presented by cash profit on the market, and which would handle: the protection of the environment against pollution, the deviation from standards of the quality of goods, etc.  

 

States already have developed regulations that determine production norms, and socialism will intensify such standards. In addition, socialism will increase the efficiency of regulations. Special commissions will accept the state’s standards, analyze possible declines from them, and propose the intensity of influences of such declines on C-income_E. It will be crucial to consider all criteria for protecting the individual and their environment from pollution. This regulation will need to be accepted by the commune’s assembly. Based on such standards, the consumers of commodities, consumer associations, professional institutions, specialized arbitration commissions at the commune level or of the coalition of communes, or international arbitrations will evaluate the quality of work of economic enterprises.  

 

It is noteworthy that the system does not envisage a bureaucratic evaluation of all producers because, in that way, an enormous bureaucratic administrative apparatus would be formed. Instead, the system envisages a customer’s free assessment of those enterprises whose products deviate positively or negatively from the determined standards. Every person will also have the equal power to evaluate companies. For example, suppose a person evaluates a positively or negatively a company that has 1000 employees. In that case, their evaluation will affect the reward or punishment of all these employees with 1/1000 of the impact that their evaluation would have on an individual. Such an assessment will be minimal but will exist and affect the improvement of production processes.

 

The system also provides the evaluation based on the analysis made by expert services of randomly selected or reported enterprises. The enterprises that do not get any assessment will be treated as they operate within the envisaged productivity and adopted economic operation standards.  

 

Analogously to the profit realized on the market, the enterprises producing more socially acceptable products to the established standards will achieve a productivity assessment higher than 1, and realize a higher income. And vice versa, the socially unacceptable enterprises will realize an evaluation lower than 1, consequently, lower salaries. Calculation of the realized productivity may be presented in an indefinite number of factors that will, through mutual multiplication, give the final value of the coefficient K-Income_E.   

 

By using the coefficients, economic enterprises can efficiently bear responsibility with their income for the pollution of the environment or bad quality of products. Enterprises polluting the environment or producing low-quality products will, dependent on the influence that such declines from the standards have, realize a lower income than they are supposed to receive according to the realized profit. Workers will also be additionally sanctioned by the loss of past labour points. To remove the shortcomings in their economic activity, such enterprises will have to compete for assets intended to develop the economy in the function of a non-profitable increase of productivity expressed by assessment. 

 

Capitalism strongly opposes the protection of the human environment because it makes production more expensive. Socialism will provide a good quality of life to be accepted by the world one day. Then it will ensure that the Earth is clean and healthy.

 

Nonprofits generally do not have a measure of labour productivity. This group includes government institutions, education, health, and other service activities that do not generate income directly on the market but are funded by the budget.

 

Non-profit organizations should be placed under the same business conditions as for-profit companies. The productivity of non-profit organizations can be expressed by performance assessment. The assessment is given by service users, user associations and professional institutions. The evaluation of the performance of non-profit organizations can be presented with a coefficient as successfully as the presentation of the work of for-profit companies. Using coefficients, one can compare the performance of for-profit companies and non-profit organizations and, based on that, reward according to the values of work performed.

 

In the associated labour, each work is non-separable from another job, so that each worker also bears responsibility for the economic activity of their enterprise. A worker stating a higher coefficient of responsibility also assumes greater responsibility for the enterprise’s productivity and will realize a higher income in the case of the enterprise’s rise in productivity, and vice versa. 

 

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Inhabitants of the commune are responsible for the productive orientation of the commune. Therefore, the coefficient of the commune’s realized productivity can be expressed by the following formula:  

C-income_C establishes the relation of the realized and envisaged productivity of the commune in the function of responsibility of each worker.  

 

This coefficient does not strongly impact the distribution of income within the commune. Differences occur only vis-à-vis the degree of responsibility an individual worker assumes for their own and collective productivity. Nevertheless, the establishment of the C-of realized productivity of the commune would be highly important in the association of the communes and the distribution of income among the communes.  

 

At the commune level, productivity is expressed by the economy’s revenue. It is possible to expand the measure of the commune’s productivity by a poly-functional system that evaluates the quality of life such as pollution-non-pollution, literacy-illiteracy, legality-illegality in the acting of the population. By using C-income_C is also possible to make subventions to less-developed communes. That would increase the interest of workers in working in such communes. In the same manner, regulating even the birth rate of the commune population will be possible. If the commune has too low or too high a birth rate, it may be adjusted by C-income_C by an appropriate value.  

 

The definition of such categories and their regulation will be the task of the state parliament. Defined categories of the coefficients of values would allow a more efficient implementation of social, economic, ecological, cultural, and all other policies of associated communes.  

 

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The income of each worker in socialism and of the commune’s inhabitants can be presented by the following formula:

C-income = (Work price) x C-income_W x C-income_E x C-income_C

It clearly arises from the formula that C-of income of each worker depends on the envisaged work price and the coefficient of realized productivity at the level of the work post, enterprise and the commune, in the function of responsibility for the realized productivity. By applying computer technology, the level of income of all workers can be quickly calculated, regardless of the number of factors determining the income. A worker who, for example, realizes a 10% rise in productivity at their work post in the enterprise that registers a 5% drop in productivity, will realize a C-income of about 5% higher. It may be assumed that workers will be most responsible for their own work because oscillations in the enterprise productivity are smaller, while they are minimal at the level of the commune.

 

The above socio-economic system represents a shareholding-social, or more precisely, a humanistic form of ownership of the means of production; however, it also allows the production of independent private entrepreneurship. Private entrepreneurship understands an independent production where the means of production are in private ownership. Work posts in private entrepreneurship are owned by private entrepreneurs, and are not subject to work competition. The owner of an enterprise employs workers according to their needs and possibilities.

 

Upon realizing cash profit on the market, private entrepreneurs keep working cash assets according to their needs. They also keep cash assets for the upgrading and amortization of the production. They are bound to pay income tax, and property tax as is the case today. These cash assets are intended for the employed workers in the non-profit economy, unemployed workers, the commune’s collective consumption, and the federal consumption. The tax level for independent private entrepreneurs will be identical to the taxes of the associated labour. The population of the commune will directly determine the level of appropriations. The owner of a private enterprise may decide to autonomously determine the income level of their workers and pay them autonomously, or may integrate into the collective distribution of incomes of the commune’s inhabitants.

 

If an independent private entrepreneurship uses in its work a production technology unknown to the public, and realizes through the use of such technology a cash profit higher than the associated labour with the shareholding-social or humanistic ownership of the means of production, it will realize a higher income. Such private entrepreneurship can survive and attract labour force in the new system as well.

 

However, the newly proposed economy will invest money in its development as much as it is needed. The system of work competition will develop the economy to such an extent that it will become more productive than independent private entrepreneurship. When independent private entrepreneurs realize incomes lower than enterprises in the collective ownership, the number of workers interested in employment with private entrepreneurs will drop. In addition, if we take into account the right of workers to freely choose the work they want, to make all decisions about their work, to choose their salaries, and to share the profits of the companies that the new system offers, the number of workers interested to work with private enterprises will be even lower. In short, the new system will out compete the private companies from the free market and take over their workers. It may be expected with high certainty that independent private entrepreneurs will surrender the ownership of the means of production to the society in exchange for an equivalent quantity of past labour points. A larger number of past labour points will ensure a higher income, a stronger competitive power in choosing work, and therefore a stronger power in the society.

 

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The money intended for incomes of all inhabitants is formed at the level of the commune’s administrative centre from the revenue of the commune. The quantity of money is determined by direct voting of the population and is appropriated from the total amount of money intended for the turnover of commodities in the commune.

 

The obtained amount of money intended for incomes of the commune’s population needs, in principle, to correspond with the envisaged quantity of money intended for the incomes of the population, because the system is based on the price of work corresponding to the income of workers. However, deviations are possible due to differently realized productivities. Therefore, there might be more or less money available for the overall income of all inhabitants in comparison with what the system originally anticipated.

 

Such deviations will be adjusted in the manner that the whole amount of money for incomes be distributed among workers proportionately to the defined C-income of workers. In this way, the shortage or surplus of money intended for incomes cannot exist. Bank loans will no longer be needed to cover a lack of money. The amount of money intended for income will be distributed to people in proportion to their share in production and everyone will be convinced that the distribution of incomes is fair.

 

The technique of income distribution may take place from the commune’s computer centre. Actual income can be established according to the extended proportion formula:

 

Income-1 : Income-2 : Income-2 : … : Income-n =

C-income_1 : C-income_2 : C-income_3 : … : C-income_n

 

From the overall quantity of money envisaged for incomes and the shown extended proportion that may include millions of members, by using computer technology, the income of each worker can be quickly and precisely calculated in the form of:

 

Income-1 = Value-1

Income-2 = Value-2

Income-3 = Value-3

…

Income-n = Value-n

 

The obtained income shows the operating result value of each commune’s inhabitant in a certain monetary amount.

 

Centralization of the income distribution systems allows the application of uniform distribution criteria according to the principle that equal incomes pertain to equal work. The profit that in the classical economy brings conveniences to the owners of the means of production is now, in a socially acceptable manner, distributed to all inhabitants of the commune. Exploitation is no longer in place.

 

No work is independent and, therefore, income arising from the collective operation result needs not be independently distributed. Income distribution by means of prolonged proportion and coefficients allows that the entire quantity of money intended for incomes in the commune is elastically distributed among the commune’s workers and inhabitants, proportionate to with the price of the invested labour and the workers’ responsibility for the realized production, without a surplus or deficit of money assets in the annual balance sheet.

 

Possible abrupt changes in the realized income of workers due to a high increase or strong decrease in productivity may be amortized by a mathematical function that will not allow a sudden rise or sudden fall of income, which would contribute to a more steady economic stability of the society.

 

The final say in income distribution has to be that of the commune’s inhabitants by their direct statement of the minimum income level. The obtained mean value stated by all inhabitants in the function of their decision-making voting power would represent the guaranteed survival subsistence minimum that each worker or inhabitant of the commune receives in the accounting period regardless of the size of their share in the production, and the price of their work.

 

A lower minimal income of inhabitants would with the established income-related amount of money intended for all incomes create a larger range among incomes, which would increase work engagement and, accordingly, the productivity of the economy and social standard. The high standard and high productivity can result in saturated markets, which diminish the working needs. The population then could, by its own free will, increase the minimal income of the population, thus reducing the range among incomes, and the workers, due to the decreased income-related stimulation in the process of production would reduce their own work engagement to the point where the supply and demand of work would come into balance.

 

The corrections can be applied by the computer technology easily and rapidly, where the smallest C-of income would ensure a democratically established minimal income. Application of the extended proportion will proportionately increase or decrease the differences in the level of income, according to the needs of the society.

 

This requirement finalizes the complex approach to the establishment of income distribution of the commune’s inhabitants excluding the workers in private enterprises who would keep their profits. The obtained value expresses the definite final income value and also the purchasing power of inhabitants in the commune. Incomes of workers may be presented to the public or kept secret depending on the wish of the people and every individual. Each inhabitant uses their own income according to their free wish.

 

 

Razvoj privrede

3.1.2.2.6         Razvoj privrede   
 
U kapitalizmu količina novca namjenjena investicijama ovisi o poduzetništvu vlasnika sredstava za proizvodnju a formiraju se izdvajanjem iz ostvarene tržišne dobiti poduzeća.

 

U socijalizmu društvo ostvaruje razvoj privrede izdvajanjem novčanih sredstava za razvoj privrede iz dohotka komune. U socijalizmu društvo neposredno raspodjeljuje zajednički dohodak komune na količinu novca namjenjenu potrošnji stanovnika komune i na novčana sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede komune.

 

Ukoliko pojedini stanovnik komune bude želio da se privreda komune u većoj mjeri razvija, tada će iskazati veću količinu novca namjenjenu razvoju privrede. Kako je ukupna količina novca ograničena tako će morati izjasniti manje novca za zajedničku  potrošnju stanovnika komune. I obratno, stanovnik koji želi veću potrošnju, iskazati će veću količinu novca namjenjenu potrošnji a manju za razvoj privrede. Iskazi svih stanovnika u funkciji njihove glasačke moći izraženoj bodovima minulog rada, upisani na internetsku aplikaciju centra za obradu podataka komune, se zatim sumiraju i tako neposredno utvrđuju količinu novca namjenjenog za zajedničku potrošnju i razvoj privrede.

 
Ukoliko stanovništvo u cjelini bude težilo većem razvoju privrede tada će se izdvajati veća količina novčanih sredstava namjenjenih akumulaciji privrede u odnosu na potrošnju što bi ubrzalo razvoj privrede a smanjilo bi dohodak stanovništva pa tako i društveni standard. Ovakva ekonomska politika omogućava svakoj komuni, bez obzira na stupanj ekonomske razvijenosti, da akumulira novac za razvoj vlastite ekonomije oslanjajući se na vlastite snage. Kad se profitna privreda razvije do tog stupnja da može osigurati ekspanzivnu proizvodnju koja će smanjiti potrebu društva da ulaže u razvoj, tada će se povećati količina novca namjenjena potrošnji. Tada bi porastao standard društva.

 

Možda je najznačajnija vrijednost takvog oblika raspodjele da se novac usmjerava demokratski, što znači da društvo u cjelini neposredno planira vlastiti razvoj. Takav oblik raspodjele novca će usmjeriti razvojnu politiku komune. Tako privreda dobija okvire usmjerenja razvoja pa može efikasno planirati vlastiti razvoj. Osim toga, tako će se prevladavati otuđenje u procesu proizvodnje nastalo kao posljedica donošenja autoritativnih odluka u društvu. 

Novčana sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede služe za privredne investicije kojima poduzeća dobavljaju nove strojeve, industrijska postrojenja i obrtna sredstva sa kojima ostvaruju veću produktivnost.

Sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede potražuju rukovodioci poduzeća na temelju programa razvoja poduzeća. Program razvoja poduzeća sadrži definiranu količinu potrebnih novčanih sredstava, predviđanje porasta novčane dobiti kompanije i rok realizacije. 

Kada se formira masa novca namjenjena razvoju privrede tada će se ona rasporediti poduzećima prema veličini K-razvoja po formuli:  

Iz formule je vidljivo da se veća ostvarena dobit uz manja potrebna novčana sredstva i kraće vrijeme realizacije ostvariti veći K-razvoja. Raspodjela novca namjenjenog razvoju privrede se vrši tako da najveći K-razvoja osigura potrebnu investiciju, zatim dolazi slijedeći K-razvoja po veličini i tako dalje. Novčana sredstva su ograničena tako da se ne mogu dodijeliti poduzećima koja ostvare manji K-razvoja od potrebnog. Takva poduzeća moraju čekati bolja vremena ili moraju povećati predviđenu dobit uz manja potrebna novčana sredstva i kraće vrijeme realizacije.  

 

Kako se novčana sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede obnavljaju u svakom periodu obračuna iz ukupne novčane dobiti komune ona se dodjeljuju bespovratno. Komuna će postati neki oblik humanističke korporacije a korporacije niti u kapitalizmu ne naplaćuju sebi svoje investicije. Dovoljno je da poduzeća ostvare predviđenu dobit pa da sredstva namijenjena razvoju privrede nađu svoju društvenu opravdanost.

 

Socijalizam predviđa egzaktno utvrđene odgovornosti rukovodioca i radnika za korištenje zajedničkih novčanih sredstava. Ukoliko rukovodstvo poduzeća želi znatno povećati produktivnost proizvodnje predlažući uzimanje velike količine novca iz fonda za razvoj privrede, oni prvo moraju dobiti odobrenje od višeg rukovodstva kako bi se unapređenje privrede odvijalo koordinirano sa ostalom ekonomijom. Zatim će iznijeti radnicima svoj program razvoja kompanije i vlastitu odgovornost za njegovo provođenje izraženu sa K-odgovornosti. Veći K-odgovornosti može radnicima između ostalog dati veće povjerenje u plan rukovodstva.

 

Značajna novčana ulaganja će značajno povećati odgovornost radnika u proizvodnim procesima, te će se oni izjašnjavati da li je mogu prihvatiti. Na temelju uvida u program rukovodstva i povjerenja u svoje rukovodstvo, radnici će preuzeti visinu preuzete odgovornosti nudeći svoj K-odgovornost. Pretpostavimo da radnici deklariraju povećanje odgovornost za svoj rad. To bi značilo da podrđavaju program rukovodstva pa će se poduzeće natjecati za dobijanje novca namijenjenog razvoju privrede. Ako radnici smanje svoje K-odgovornosti, to bi značilo da nisu sigurni u investicijski program koji rukovodioci predlažu, što bi moglo odgoditi ili blokirati investiciju. Menadžeri će trebati uvjeriti radnike da prihvate njihov prijedlog objašnjavajući rizike i pogodnosti investicije.

 

Predloženi K-odgovornosti od radnika i rukovodstva će biti na snazi do isteka vremena potrebnog za realizaciju razvoja proizvodnje. Oni u tom periodu ne mogu samoinicijativno smanjiti niti povećati svoj K-odgovornosti za predviđenu produktivnost osim u slučaju kada su promjene produktivnosti zajednički usvojene.

 

Sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede povećavaju produktivnost privrede pa tako i vrijednost novoproizvedene robe, što zahtjeva povećanje mase novca u opticaju za kupovnu novo proizvedenu robu. Porast količine novca u opticaju zahtjeva povećanje količine bodova minulog rada radnika. Novo stvorenu količinu bodova minulog rada treba raspodjeliti između radnika poduzeća i stanovništva, proporcionalno njihovim K-odgovornosti za doprinos u proizvodnji novonastale vrijednosti. 

 

Privredna poduzeća imaju mjeru produktivnosti izraženu novčanom dobiti na tržištu. Po isteku vremena potrebnog za realizaciju predviđenog porasta produktivnosti, vrši se obračun uspješnosti poslovanja. Ukoliko poduzeće ostvari predloženu novčanu dobit tada se takva dobit tretira kao trajno unapređenje rada koje trajno donosi veći dohodak i sa time radnici poduzeća stjeću uvjete za dobivanje bodova minulog rada. Tada se razlika između ostvarene predviđene dobiti i dobiti koju je poduzeće ostvarivalo prije investicije prikazuje kao porast dobiti. Tada se radnicima u poduzeću raspodjeljuje količina bodova minulog rada u veličini predviđenog porasta novčane dobiti poduzeća.  

 

Međutim ukoliko profitna poduzeća komune ne ostvare predviđenu novčanu dobit u predviđenom vremenu sa korištenjem novca za razvoj privrede, tada se razlika između predviđene i ostvarene dobiti prikazuje kao gubitak. Tada se radnicima u poduzeću oduzimaju bodovi minulog rada u veličini neostvarenog profita poduzeća. Sa tim u vezi ako kompanija ostvari pola predviđene dobiti, ona će zaraditi pola očekivanih bodova minulog rada i u isto vrijeme izgubiti pola očekivanih bodova minulog rada. To znači da pola ostvarene produktivnosti ne donosi zaradu ni gubitak bodova minulog rada.

 

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Produktivnost profitnih kompanija utvrđuje se novčanom dobit ina tržištu dok se produktivnost neprofitnih i državnih organizacija ostvaruju pogodnostima koje one ostvaruju komuni. U tu skupinu spadaju organi uprave, javna zaštita, obrazovanje, zdravstvo i slične djelatnosti. Proizvodi rada u organizacijama su besplatni za stanovništvo pa se njihova produktivnost ne može mjeriti novcem. Produktivnost rada organizacija se izražava ocjenom uspješnosti njihovog rada. U socijalizmu se produktivnost organizacija izražava ocjenom kvalitete proizvedenih usluga koje daju pojedinci izravno i specijalizirane arbitražne komisije.

 

Neprofitne organizacije također potražuju novčana sredstva namjenjena njihovom razvoju ali ne iz fonda razvoja privrede nego iz fonda zajedničke robne potrošnje. Ocjena uspješnosti neprofitnih organizacija može imati skalu vrijednosti ekvivalentnu novčanoj dobiti privrede, pa bi svako unapređenje njihove uspješnosti rada povećavalo indeks uspješnosti neprofitnih djelatnosti i obrnuto. Radnici u neprofitnim organizacijama također trebaju imati pravo na ostvarivanje porasta količine bodova minulog rada u slučaju porasta produktivnosti koja se izdvaja iz dobiti poduzeća privrede.  

 

To znači da će organizacije komune sudjelovati u dobiti ekonomije. Količina bodova koja se dodijeljuje organizacijama se komparacijom ostvarenih produktivnosti profitne privrede i neprofitnih organizacija. Upotrebom koeficijenata moguće je matematički komparirati profit privrede i unapređenje djelatnosti neprofitnih organizacija i formirati ravnotežu nagrada i sankcija za sve pogodnosti i nepogodnosti rada radnika u profitnim i neprofitnim djelatnostima. U sistemu radne konkurencije takva komparacija će biti nužno objektivna jer bi svaki nesrazmjer dovodio do većeg prelijevanja rada tamo gdje bi uvjeti rada bili povoljniji što nikome ne bi bilo u interesu.  

 

Kada je poznata ukupna  količina bodova minulog rada koja se pridodaje ili oduzima od radnika u svakom poduzeću i organizaciji, tada se uz pomoć kompjutorske tehnologije izračunavaju nagrade ili sankcije svakog radnika pomoću formule:

 

                Radnik-1 : Radnik-2 : Radnik-3 : … : Radnik-n =
                K-odgov.-1 : K-odgov.-2 : K-odgov.-3 : … : K-odgov.-n

 

A rezultat se dobije u obliku:

 

                Radnik-1 = +/- Količina bodova-1
                Radnik-2 = +/- Količina bodova-2
                Radnik-3 = +/- Količina bodova-3
                …
                Radnik-n = +/- Količina bodova-n 

 

Privatni poduzetnici nastupaju nezavisno na tržištu kao i poduzeće komune. Privatni poduzetnici podnose odgovotnost za svoje poslovanje vlastitim kapitalom. Radnici zaposleni kod privatnika podnose odgovornost za svoj rad neposredno privatnom poduzetniku. Privatno poduzetništvo ne izdvaja novac za fond namjenjen razvoju privrede komune pa ne može ni koristiti ta novčana sredstva. Privatno poduzetništvo mora samostalno akumulirati novac ili ga posuditi od banaka sa kamatom. 

 

Obzirom da će radna konkurencija u socijalizmu, biti najmanje jednako ili više produktivna od privatnog poduzetništva, može se očekivati da će privatno poduzetništvo gubiti produktivnu bitku sa socijalističkim poduzetništvom. Osim toga, u socijalizmu će rasti produktivna svijest radnika te će oni hteti sami donositi odluke, podnositi odgovornost za svoje odluke, i participirati u raspodjeli profita poduzeća što u kapitalizmu ne mogu. Kako će u socijalističkom obliku vlasništva nad sredstvima za proizvodnju radnici imati znatno veća prava i slobode, može se očekivati da će privatni poduzetnici gubiti radnu snagu.  

 

Tada će privatni poduzetnici biti prisiljeni prepuštati vlastita poduzeća komuni u zamjenu za ekvivalentnu količinu bodova minulog rada. Veća količina bodova minulog rada će donositi veći dohodak, veću mogućnost izbora radnog mjesta i općenito veće priznanje produktivne moći u društvu. 

 

Primjena koeficijenta odgovornosti u socijalizmu predstavlja vrlo povoljnu zamjenu za burzovne špekulacije kapitalizma. Mogući dobici ili gubici bodova minulog rada, što je ekvivalent akcija u kapitalizmu, se vežu za uspješnost procjene produktivnosti vlastite kompanije. Socijalizam stavlja radnike u ravnopravaniji položaj u procesu proizvodnje, umanjuje otuđenje u procesu proizvodnje a zajednička odgovornost doprinosi većem prosperitetu privređivanja.  

 

Demokratsko planiranje i upravljanje nad privredom, puna zaposlenost uz radnu konkurenciju, riješeno pitanje odgovornosti radnika i nagrađivnje prema radu definitivno uklanjaju nedostatke poznatog socijalističkog i kapitalističkog oblika privređivanja. To će omogućiti razvoj socijalizma.

Economy Development

3.1.2.2.5         Development of the Economy 

 

In capitalism, the amount of money intended for investment depends on the entrepreneurship of the owner of the means of production. It is formed by an allocation from the realized market profit of the company.

 

In socialism, society achieves the development of the economy by allocating funds for the development of the economy from the revenue of the commune. In socialism, people directly distribute the revenue of the commune on funds intended for the development of the commune’s economy and on funds intended for the spending of people in the commune.

 

Suppose an inhabitant of the commune wishes that the commune’s economy develops to a more significant extent. In that case, they will then state a more substantial amount of money intended for the development of the economy. As the total quantity of money is limited, they will have to declare a smaller amount of funds meant for the spending of the commune’s inhabitants. And vice versa, an inhabitant wishing for more significant spending will state a larger amount of money intended for spending and a smaller amount for the development of the economy. The statements of all inhabitants in the function of their voting power expressed in points of past work, entered into the Internet application of the centre for data processing, will sum up and form the amount of money intended for collective spending and the development of the economy.  

 

Suppose inhabitants will generally tend to a more significant development of the economy. In that case, a larger quantity of assets intended for the accumulation of the economy concerning spending will be appropriated, which would speed up the economic development and reduce the income of the population and, consequently, the standard of living. Such a monetary policy enables each commune to accumulate money to develop its economy by relying on its forces irrespective of the degree of economic development. When the economy grows to a point where it can ensure an expansive production, the need for society to invest in the development will diminish. In this way, the amount of money intended for spending would increase, as would society’s standard of living.  

 

Perhaps, the essential value of such a form of distribution is that the money is earmarked democratically, which means that society will plan its development. Such a monetary distribution form will guide the commune’s developmental policy. Thus, the economy gets the framework for development direction to plan its development effectively. In addition, this will overcome the alienation in the production process that has arisen from making authoritative decisions in society.

 

Assets intended for economic development services for economic investments by which enterprises acquire new machinery, industrial installations and working capital, helping them achieve higher productivity.

 

Enterprise managers demand assets intended for economic development based on the development programs of their respective enterprises. The enterprise development program contains a defined amount of needed assets, the envisaged profit of the company, and the time of implementation.

 

When the amount of money necessary for economic development is formed, it will be distributed according to the C-of development in the following formula:   

 

It is clear from the formula that a smaller amount of needed assets and a more significant profit realized with a shorter implementation time results in higher C-of development. Therefore, the assets are distributed so that the most significant C-of development will get the needed investments, followed by the subsequent C-of development, and so on. Assets are limited, so they cannot be allocated to enterprises that achieve a smaller than necessary C-of development. Such enterprises must wait for better times or have to increase the predicted profit with a smaller amount of needed assets and a shorter time of implementation. 

 

As the funds intended for the development of the for-profit economy are renewed in each accounting period from the revenue of the commune, they are allocated non-refundable as grants. The commune will become a humanistic corporation, and corporations, even in capitalism, do not charge themselves for their investments. It is enough for companies to realize the envisaged profit, and in this way, the assets intended for economic development find their social justification.  

 

Socialism presupposes precisely determined responsibilities of managers and workers in using funds to develop the economy. For example, suppose the company’s management wants to significantly increase production by proposing to take large amounts of money from the economic development fund. In that case, they must first get approval from senior management so that the economy’s improvement occurs in a coordinated manner with other economies. Then, the company manager will present the development program to the workers and his responsibility for its implementation with K-responsibility. Higher K-responsibility can give workers, among other things, greater confidence in the manager’s plan.

 

Significant investments will considerably increase the responsibility of workers in production processes, and they will need to declare whether they can accept it. Based on insight into the management program and trust in their management, workers will take the scope of their responsibility by offering their K-responsibility. Suppose workers declare an increase in responsibility for their work. This would mean that they support the management program so that the company will compete for money intended for economic development. If workers reduce their K-responsibilities, it would mean they are unsure of the investment program that managers propose, which could delay or prevent the investment. Managers will need to persuade workers to accept their proposal by explaining the risks and benefits of investing.

 

The proposed K-responsibilities from workers and management will be in force until the time required to realize the development of production. They cannot reduce or increase their K-responsibility for projected productivity during this period unless the productivity changes are jointly adopted.

 

Funds intended for the development of the economy increase the economy’s productivity and thus the value of newly-produced goods, which requires an increase in the mass of money in circulation to purchase newly-produced goods. An increase in the amount of money in circulation requires an increase in the worker’s past work points. Therefore, the new amount of past labour points should be distributed among the enterprise’s workers in proportion to their K-responsibility for contributing to the production of the newly created value.

 

Businesses have a measure of productivity expressed in monetary gain in the market. After the expiration of the time required to realize the projected increase in productivity, the calculation of business success is performed. For example, suppose the company realizes the proposed monetary profit. Such profit is treated as a permanent work improvement that permanently brings higher income. Thus, the company’s workers get the requirements for acquiring points of past work. Then the difference between the achieved realized profit and the profit that the company made before the investment is shown as an increase in profit. Then the past labour points are distributed to the employees in the company in the amount of the projected increase in the company’s cash profit.

 

However, suppose some companies of the commune do not realize the projected profit in the foreseen time with the use of money for the development of the economy. In that case, the difference between the expected and realized profit is shown as a loss. Then the past labour points are deducted from the company’s employees in the quantity of the company’s non-achieved profit gain. In this regard, if the company makes half of the expected profit, it will earn half of the expected points of past work and at the same time lose half of the expected points of past work. This means that achieving half of the productivity by using assets for economic development does not bring earnings or losses of the points of past work.

 

***

 

The productivity of a profitable economy makes a direct monetary gain on the market, while the productivity of non-profit and government organizations is realized by the benefits they realize to the commune. Work products of organizations are free of charge for the population. Such a group may include administration bodies, public protection, education, healthcare, and similar activities. In socialism, the productivity of organizations is expressed by the performance assessment of the quality of services provided by the people directly and by specialized arbitration commissions.

 

Organizations also demand monetary assets for their development, but it comes from the collective spending fund. Therefore, evaluation of the success of non-profit companies may have a scale of values equivalent to the monetary profit of the economy so that improvement in the work performance of organizations would increase their success index and vice-versa. The workers in organizations also need to be entitled to an increase in the number of past labour points in the case of high productivity, which is set aside from the profit economy.  

 

This means that the organizations of the commune will participate in the profit of the economy. The quantity of income points allocated to the non-profit economy is determined by comparing the realized productivities in the profit economy and non-profit organizations. Using the coefficients makes it possible to mathematically compare the profit of the economy and the development of non-profit organizations and form a balance of awards and punishments for all conveniences and inconveniences coming from work in profit and non-profit activities. In the division of labour through work competition, such comparison will be necessarily objective. Each disproportion would result in the spill-over of work, where the work conditions would be more convenient, in nobody’s interest.  

 

When the total amount of past labour points which need to be added to or deducted from all workers in all companies and organizations is known, then with the help of computer technology, the rewards or sanctions against each worker are calculated by the following formula:   

 

Worker-1 : Worker-2 : Worker-3 : … : Worker-n =

C-of respons.-1: C-respons.-2 : C-respons.-3 : … : C-respons.- n 

 

And the result is achievable in the form of:

 

Worker-1 = +/- Quantity of points-1

Worker-2 = +/- Quantity of points-2

Worker-3 = +/- Quantity of points-3

…….

Worker-n = +/- Quantity of points-n

 

Private entrepreneurs perform independently in the same way as the merged public company of the commune. Private entrepreneurs are accountable for their business operations with their capital. The workers employed by private entrepreneurs are responsible for their work directly to the private entrepreneur. Private entrepreneurship does not allocate money to develop the commune’s economy, so it cannot use these cash assets. Private entrepreneurship has to accumulate the cash by itself or borrow it from banks with interest-bearing loans.  

 

Considering that the work competition in socialism will be at least equal to or more productive than the work in private entrepreneurship, it may be expected that private entrepreneurship will lose the productivity fight against socialist entrepreneurship. In addition, under socialism, the productive consciousness of workers will grow, and they will want to make their own decisions, take responsibility for their own decisions, and participate in the distribution of corporate profits that they cannot achieve under capitalism. As workers will have significantly more significant rights and freedoms in the socialist form of ownership of the means of production, it can be expected that private entrepreneurs will lose the labour force.

 

Private entrepreneurs will then be forced to surrender their enterprises to the commune for the equivalent amount of past labour points. A larger quantity of past labour points brings a higher income, more possibilities in choosing work posts and, generally, a greater productive power recognition in the society.   

 

Applying the coefficient of responsibility in socialism represents a very favourable substitution for stock-exchange speculations of capitalism. This is because possible gains or losses of past labour points of workers, equivalent to shares in capitalism, are tied to the successfulness of productivity of their companies. Socialism puts workers in an equal position in production and diminishes alienation in the process of production, while collective responsibility contributes to greater prosperity in doing business.  

 

Democratic planning and management of the economy, full employment and work competition, the resolved issue of workers’ accountability, and distribution of incomes according to work values will remove the deficiencies of the known socialist and capitalistic forms of business activities. This will enable the development of socialism.

Obrtna sredstva

3.1.2.2.5         Obrtna novčana sredstva  

 

Socijalizam će organizirati potpuno novi oblik proizvodnje, dok će poduzeća u privatnom vlasništvu nastaviti da posluju po principima kapitalističkog tržišnog oblika privređivanja kao što to rade danas.  

 

Komuna će imati zajednička novčana sredstva koja će ostvariti otkupom novca od stanovnika pomoću bodova minulog rada, porezima i na druge načine. Na taj način komuna može akumulirati znatno veću količinu novca nego što je potrebno za potrošnju stanovništva u periodu obračuna. Višak novčanih sredstava predstavlja novčanu akumulaciju komune. Iz tog novčanog fonda komuna mora sačuvati određenu novčanu rezervu za pokrivanje eventualnih investicijskih poremećaja, zatim za pokrivanje šteta nastalih elementarnim ili na druge načine nastalim nepogodama. Sa tim novčanim sredstvima komuna sama sebe osigurava. Ostatak novca će se koristiti kao obrtna sredstva javne kompanije komune.

 

Obrtna novčana sredstva su akumulirana sredstva minulog rada proizvođača i služe kao prometno sredstvo plaćanja drugim proizvođačima za proizvode, poluproizvode, repromaterijale i sirovine koje privreda komune prerađuje u svom proizvodnom procesu.  

Socijalizam može dodjeljivati obrtna sredstva vlastitoj privredi beskamatno, pod uvjetom da privreda vrati posuđeni novac u periodu obračuna. Ništa novo u stvari, komuna postaje nešto poput korporacije a poduzeća ne naplaćuju sama sebi obrtna sredstva. Nikakav interes društvo nebi imalo da naplaćuje samo sebi pozajmice. 

 

U kapitalističkom sistemu proizvođači i potrošači koji nemaju gotovog novca uzimaju kredite za kupovinu robe. Krediti opterećuju cijenu robe sa kamatom koju određuje tržište na temelju ponude i potržnje. Kamata zahtjeva veći povrat novca nego što je posuđen. To je sa jedne strane oblik eksploatacije društva koja je neprihvatljiva u socijalizmu. Sa druge strane novac namjenjen kamatama ne postoji u opticaju pa se mora kreirati kako bi se omogućilo vraćanje posuđenog novca s kamatom. Kamata ni na koji način ne doprinosi proizvodnji vrijednosti u društvu tako da nije racionalna a uz to donosi probleme monetarnoj politici društva.     

 

Beskamatno dodjeljivanje kredita ne poskupljuje proizvodnju i ukida eksploataciju društva. Ukoliko komuna može kreditirati proizvodnju beskamatno, tada i privreda može u skladu sa mogućnostima, odgađati naplatu svoje robe beskamatnim kreditima. Kada komuna bude dodjeljivala kredite beskamatno tada više privatni kreditori ne bi mogli zarađivati posudbom novca pa bi se time smanjivala upotreba kamata kao oblik rente. Važno je napomenuti da kamate neće biti ukinute. One će egzistirati dokle god to bude neophodno ali će društvo formirati takve uvjete kreditne politike, koja će obeshrabriti kamatu na posuđeni novac. 

 

U zapadnom svijetu kamate su već danas vrlo niske jer samo malo podizanje kamata može dovesti do teškoća privređivanja koji mogu uzrokovati bankrote. Dodatno smanjivanje kamata bi praktično ukinulo kamatu pa tako i rentijerstvo na posuđeni novac. Dodatno smanjivanje kamata u stvari predstavlja kraj kapitalizma.

 

Nestajanjem kamata banke bi gubile svoju funkciju rentijerstva pomoću akumuliranog novca. One više ne bi bile profitabilna poduzeća već bi mogla vršiti funkciju individualnog i društvenog knjigovodstva robno novčanog prometa u komuni. Banke mogu pomoću kompjutorske tehnologije voditi evidenciju o imovinskom stanju stanovnika, zatim evidenciju prihoda i rashoda stanovnika i privrede komune. 

 

*** 

 

Ipak, kamate mogu doprinijeti efikasnosti privrede. Duži period otplate kredita povećava količinu novca koji se plaća za kamate pa je korisnicima kredita u interesu da što prije otplate kredite.

Uvođenjem beskamatnog kredita potrebno je formirati novi sistem raspodjele novca koji će biti najmanje podjednako financijski efikasno kao što je kamatno kreditiranje kapitalizma. Kako je količina obrtnih sredstava ograničena tako se može dogoditi da budu nedostatna za potrebe svih korisnika. Sa time u vezi obrtna sredstva treba raspodjeljivati među korisnicima u funkciji vremena obrta što se može prikazati formulom:

Veći K-obrtnih sredstava će ostvariti korisnik obrtnih sredstava koji u kraćem vremenu vrati posuđeni novac. Svi veći koeficijenti obrtnih sredstava će osigurati beskamatno kreditiranje od strane komune bez obzira na količinu potraživanih sredstava, dok se fond obrtnih sredstava ne istroši.  

Sistem daje veću mogućnost pridobijanja novca privredi koja predviđa kraće vrijeme prometa robe, što je i razumljivo jer se tada novac brže vraća te se može ponovo obrtati. Proizvodnja koja u periodu platnog obračuna od mjesec dana nalazi svoju potrošnju moći će pomoću opisanog sistema raspodjele koristiti obrtna novčana sredstava jer ih praktično odmah i vraća. 

Privreda u zajedničkom vlasništvu stanovnika komune je dužna da posuđenu količinu novca vrati u periodu obračuna. Privreda može vratiti obrtna sredstva pod uvjetom da proizvodi robu koju društvo treba i bude plaćena za tu robu. U slučaju neuspjeha proizvođači neće zaraditi dovoljno novca. Ukoliko novčana dobit, bude veća od količine utrošenih obrtnih sredstava, tada poduzeća još uvjek posluju relativno pozitivno jer su u stanju vratiti obrtna novčana sredstava. Mala ostvarena dobit u periodu obračuna će smanjiti dohodak radnika. 

Ukoliko ostvarena dobit padne ispod količine korištenih obrtnih sredstava, tada poduzeće bilježi gubitak obrtnih novčanih sredstava. Toleriranje takve situacije bi dovelo do smanjivanja količine obrtnih novčanih sredstava u novčanom fondu komune pa bi proizvođači imali teškoće obnavljati proizvodnju. Ni jedan ekonomski sistem ne može dozvoliti finansijsku nedisciplinu pa tako ne može ni socijalizam i stoga će uvesti sistem mjera za podnošenje odgovornosti. U socijalizmu svi radnici podnose odgovornost za gubitak obrtnog novca kompanije i zajednički ga nadoknađuju pomoću bodova minulog rada koji posjeduju.

Proizvodnja koja je namijenjena nepoznatom potrošaču ne mora se odmah plasirati na tržištu. U tom slučaju promet robe može trajati duže od mjesečnog perioda obračuna, pa poduzeće može ostvariti manju dobit od količine utrošenih obrtnih sredstava u periodu obračuna. Međutim, kako svako poduzeće posluje kontinuirano, može na temelju naplate proizvedene robe iz nekog prošlog perioda proizvodnje, ostvariti potrebnu dobit i osigurati povrat obrtnih sredstava.
 
Odgovornost radnika treba preuzeti neovisno o cikličkim oscilacijama dobiti. Svako poduzeće u toku godinu dana uzima obrtna sredstva onoliko puta koliko je potrebno i vraća ih po ostvarenoj dobiti na tržištu. Ukoliko poduzeće u periodu od godinu dana ne uspiju vratiti sva obrtna sredstva tada se razlika između posuđenih i vraćenih sredstava odbija od posjeda bodova minulog rada svih radnika proporcionalno koeficijentu odgovornosti. U slučaju gubitaka poduzeća veći koeficijenat odgovornosti radnika donosi veći gubitak bodova minulog rada i niži dohodak. I obratno, manji koeficijenat odgovornosti radnika u slučaju novčanih gubitaka poduzeća donosi manji gubitak količine bodova minulog rada i manji pad visine dohotka. Inicijator pogrešne odluke će dopunski biti sankcioniran lošom ocjenom radnika i posebnih komisija. Na taj način uzimanje obrtnih sredstava za sobom povlači veliku odgovornost cijelog kolektiva što je uvjet produktivnog poslovanja. Tehnika oduzimanja bodova minulog rada radnika je detaljno je prikazana u poglavlju „Razvoj privrede.“

Ne neostvarenje predviđene dobiti uslijed elementarne nepogode kao što su potresi, poplave i požari, nebi se trebali smatrati gubicima privrede pa se isti nadoknađuju iz fonda novčanih rezervi komune. 


Količina obrtnih sredstava u rezervnom fondu komune je uvijek ograničena i zato se može dogoditi da pojedini proizvođači ne osiguraju potrebna obrtna novčana sredstva. Privreda bez obrtnih novčanih sredstava ne može proizvoditi pa bi se pogoni trebali zatvoriti. U tom slučaju komuna predviđa rezervni izvor dodjele obrtnih novčanih sredstava iz fonda namjenjenog razvoju privrede. Ukoliko im ni tada ne pođe za rukom da se izbore za potrebna obrtna novčana sredstva, tada ih proizvođači mogu zatražiti od privatnih banaka sa tržišnom kamatom. 

Međutim, kako će se obrtna sredstva komune raspodjeliti beskamatno, tako će potražnja za kreditima sa kamatom padati a posjednici akumuliranog novca će imati teškoće da ostvare proviziju. Tada će posjednici novca imati veći interes da svoj novac zamjenjuju za bodove minulog rada čime će komuna ostvariti veća novčana sredstva za beskamatno kreditiranje privrede i potrošača. To će jačati socijalističku privredu

Na kraju treba reći da bez obzira koliko se privreda komune udruživala, tržišna privreda nikada neće biti neosetljiva na kolebanje konjunkture. Zaoštravanjem uvjeta za podnošenje odgovornosti koje će donijeti radna konkurencija, neuspjesi proizvođača mogu biti izrazito nepogodni. Sa time u vezi proizvođači će morati tražiti veći stupanj sigurnosti privređivanja i nalaziti će je u proizvodnji za poznate potrošače.  

Udruženi proizvođači će ispitati potrošače o njihovim potrebama te će postepeno organizirati proizvodnju po njihovoj narudžbi. Sa poznatom potrošnjom privreda može uspješno organizirati svoje djelovanje a radna konkurencija će omogućiti najuspešniju organizaciju rada. Treba naglasiti da će se takva proizvodnja roba sve manje odvijati u tržišnoj a sve više u planskoj ekonomiji.

 

Working Capital

3.1.2.2.5              Working Capital

 

Socialism will organize an entirely new form of production. At the same time, privately owned enterprises will continue to operate according to the principles of the capitalist market form of the economy as they do today.

 

The commune will have common funds realized by exchanging money from the inhabitants with the past labour points and taxes. In this way, the commune can accumulate significantly more money than is needed for the population’s spending in the accounting period. The surplus of funds represents the monetary accumulation of the commune. From that monetary fund, the commune must keep a certain financial reserve to cover possible investment disturbances, then to cover damages caused by natural or other disasters. With these funds, the commune ensures itself. The rest of the money will be used as the working capital of the public company of the commune.

 

Working capital is the accumulated means of past labour of producers and serves as a means of payment to other producers for products, semi-finished products, and raw materials that the commune’s economy processes in its production processes.

 

Socialism can allocate working capital to its economy without interest, provided that the economy repays the borrowed money in the settlement period. In reality, the commune is becoming something like a corporation, and companies do not charge themselves for working capital. Therefore, the commune would have no interest in charging loans to itself.

 

In the capitalist system, producers and consumers who do not have cash take out loans to buy goods. Loans burden the price of goods with interest determined by the market based on supply and demand. Interest requires a higher return on money than borrowed. On the one hand, it is a form of exploitation of people unacceptable in socialism. On the other hand, money intended for interest does not exist in circulation, so it must be created to enable the return of borrowed money with interest. Interest does not contribute to the production of value in society, so it is not rational and, at the same time, brings problems to the monetary policy.

 

Interest-free lending does not increase the cost of production and eliminates the exploitation of society. If the commune can credit production without interest, then the economy may, according to its possibilities, postpone the collection of the payments for its goods with interest-free loans. When the commune grants loans without interest, private creditors would no longer be able to make money by borrowing money, thus reducing the use of interest as a form of rent. It is important to note that interest rates will not be abolished. They will exist as long as necessary, but the commune will form such credit policy conditions, discouraging interest in borrowed money.

 

In the western world, interest rates are already low today because only a slight increase in interest rates may lead to business difficulties that can cause bankruptcies. An additional reduction in interest rates would practically abolish interest rates and rent-seeking on borrowed money. A further reduction in interest rates is, in fact, the end of capitalism.

 

With the disappearance of interest, banks would lose their function of earning rent based on accumulated money. They would no longer be profitable enterprises but could perform the role of individual and social bookkeeping of the monetary transactions in the community. Aided by computer technology, banks may keep records of earnings and expenditures of the population and companies of the commune.

  

***

 

However, interest can contribute to the efficiency of the economy. A more extended loan repayment period increases the amount of money paid for interest, so it is in the interest of loan users to repay loans as soon as possible.

 

By introducing a system of non-interest-bearing loans, it will be necessary to set up a new method of monetary distribution that will, in trading and financial terms, be as efficient as the interest lending of capitalism. Since the quantity of working capital is limited, it may happen that such money will not be sufficient to cover the needs of all beneficiaries. In this regard, the working capital needs to be distributed among the beneficiaries in the function of turnover time, which may be presented in the following formula:

The working capital beneficiary who repays the borrowed money in a shorter time will realize a more significant C-of working capital. Therefore, all larger working capital coefficients will ensure non-interest-bearing credit financing by the commune, irrespective of the quantity of the assets claimed, as long as the working capital fund shall have become exhausted.  

 

The system predicts a higher chance of getting money to the economy that envisages a shorter turnover time of commodities. This is understandable because the money repayment is faster and can be again used for lending. Production that finds its spending in the payment period of one month will be able to use working capital with the help of the described distribution system because it returns them practically immediately.

 

The economy, collectively owned by the commune’s population, uses the commune’s working capital according to its needs. It is bound to repay the borrowed amount of money within the accounting period. The economy can return the working capital provided if it produces commodities the society needs and gets paid for it. In case of failure, the producers will not make enough money. If profit is greater than the amount of working capital spent, companies are still operating relatively positively because they can return working capital. On the other hand, low profit in the accounting period will reduce workers’ income.

 

If the realized profit falls below the amount of used working capital, the enterprise then registers a loss in working capital. Toleration of such a situation would reduce the amount of working capital in the commune’s money fund, and producers would have difficulties renewing production. No economic system can tolerate financial indiscipline, so neither can socialism. Therefore, the commune will introduce measures for bearing the responsibility of workers. In socialism, all workers are accountable when companies lose money and compensate for such losses collectively through past labour points they possess.  

 

Companies’ production intended for unknown consumers need not be placed immediately on the market. In that case, the turnover of commodities may last longer than the one-month accounting period, and the enterprise may realize less profit than the working capital amount spent in the accounting period. However, as each company operates continuously, it can make the necessary profit and ensure the return of working capital based on the collection of manufactured goods from a previous production period.

 

The responsibility of workers needs to be taken independently of cyclic oscillations of profits. Over the course of one year, each enterprise takes the working capital as many times as it needs and repays it after realizing a profit on the market. Suppose such an enterprise fails to repay the entire working capital within one year. The difference between the borrowed and refunded assets shall be subtracted from the past labour points of all workers, proportionately to the coefficient of their responsibility. If an enterprise loses money, workers’ higher coefficient of responsibility will bring a more significant loss of past labour points and a lower income. And vice-versa, a lower coefficient of workers’ responsibility, in this case, will bring along a minor loss of the past labour points and a smaller decline in the level of income. The initiator of the wrong borrow decision will also be sanctioned by workers’ negative evaluations and special commissions. In this way, borrowing money involves a great responsibility of the whole collective, which is a precondition for productive production. The technique of adding and taking past labour points is presented in detail in the chapter: “The Development of Economy.”

 

Non-realization of the envisaged profit due to natural catastrophes such as earthquakes, floods, and fires need not be considered as lousy productivity of the economy. The commune’s reserve money fund would cover such losses.

 

The working capital in the commune’s reserve fund is always limited, and it may happen that some producers do not get the necessary working capital. The economy can’t produce without working capital, and such plants would need to be closed. For such cases, the commune envisages a reserve source from the development of the economy where working capital may be allocated. If neither of these are possible, they can seek it from private banks with the market interest rate.

 

However, as the working capital of the commune will be distributed interest-free, the demand for interest-bearing loans will fall, and the holders of accumulated money will have difficulty earning a commission. Then the owners of the funds will be more interested in exchanging them for past work points, enabling the commune to possess money for interest-free lending to the economy and consumers. That will strengthen the socialist economy

 

It is worth saying that irrespective of the extent to which the economy will be associated, the market economy will never be insensitive to oscillations in trends. By tightening the requirements concerning risk-bearing that will result from the work competition, the failures of producers may be markedly inconvenient. In this regard, producers will have to seek a higher degree of certainty in doing business and find it in the production for the known consumers.  

 

The associated producers will question consumers’ needs and gradually organize production on their order. The economy can successfully manage production with known spending, and labour competition will enable the most successful work performance. It should be emphasized that such economic production of goods will occur less and less in the market economy and more and more in the planned economy.

Novac

3.1.2.2.4         Novac

Novac je prometno sredstvo plaćanja robe i usluga u tržišnoj privredi. Novac u opticaju emitira državni aparat kroz centralnu banku. Država nastoji da izjednači količinu novca u opticaju sa vrijednošću ukupno proizvedene robe i usluga kako bi omogućila stabilnu ekonomiju. Državna centralna banka regulira ponudu novca na tržištu monetarnom politikom. Glavni instrument ekonomske politike države je formiranje kreditno kamatne stope.  

 

Država pomoću niskih kamatnih stopa stvara expanzivnu novčanu politiku koja stimulira investicije. Razvoj privrede povećava zaposlenost radnika, nacionalni dohodak i blagostanja društva. Međutim povećana masa novca u opticaju stvara inflaciju koja podiže cijene robe i dovodi do nestabilnosti na tržištu što je nepogodno za ekonomiju.

 

Država nastoji kontrolirati inflaciju i stabilizirati ekonomiju restriktivnom monetarnom politikom koja povećanjem kamatnih stopa ograničava ponudu novca. Tada se javlja deflacijska napetost koja guši promet robe i dovodi do recesije u proizvodnji. Recesija smanjuje profite kompanija što povećava nezaposlenost, smanjuje standard ljudi i dovodi do ekonom­skih kriza.

 

Tržišna regulacija količine novca u opticaju ne stvara dovoljno stabilnu ekonomsku politiku jer je teško uravnotežiti ogroman broj nezavisnih faktora koji prevladavaju u ekonomiji društva. Tako se javlja cikličko kolebanje konjunkture, što je nepovoljno za privredu i društvo. Monetarna politika država se znatno više prilagođava anarhičnim promjenama tržišta nego što je bazirana na organiziranoj ekonomskoj politici.

 

Stabilna ekonomska politika zahtjeva uravnoteženu raspodjelu rada, poznatu kupovnu moć stanovništva i poznate potrebe društva te efikasnu privredu koja takve potrebe zadovoljava. Potpuno uravnoteženu ekonomsku politiku može voditi samo razvijena planska privreda i zato će ona morati nastupiti u budućnosti. Ona će nužno zahtijevati kreiranje takve monetarne politike koja će osigurati odgovarajuću količinu novca u opticaju i demokratsku kontrolu njegovog korištenja.


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Svakoj privredi bi najviše odgovaralo da se u prometu nalazi upravo tolika količina novca kolika je vrijednost proizvedene robe. U idealnom slučaju privreda proizvodi upravo ono što društvo treba, a novac u opticaju omogućava kupovinu proizvedene robe. To bi kreiralo ekonomsku stabilnost društva.

 

Potrošači posjeduju veliku količinu novca. Ona je znatno veća od vrijednosti tekuće proizvodnje i znatno manja od ukupne vrijednosti svega što društvo posjeduje jer su te vrijednosti nastale obrtanjem istog novca. Dio tog novca se obrće za potrebe platnog prometa proizvodnje i potrošnje, a velika količina novca je akumulirana za ostvarenje ekonomske sigurnosti i investiranje ljudi. Veliki problem za ekonomiju leži u tome što se privatno akumulirani novac koristi slobodno što privredi stvara poteškoće planiranja proizvodnje. Potrebno je uvesti više reda u ekonomsku politiku komune kroz proces planiranja proizvodnje.

Komuna ne emitira novac, ali ga može pribaviti otkupom akumuliranog novca u vlasništvu stanovništva pomoću bodova minulog rada. Veća količina bodova minulog rada radnika donosi veći dohodak pa ljudi koji posjeduju novac mogu naći svoj interes u zamjeni novca za bodove minulog rada. Prodajom novca stanovništvo komune gubi mogućnost rentijerstva sa bankovnom kamatom, ali ostvaruje porast dohotka proporcionalno porastu količine bodova minulog rada.

Socijastičko društvo materijalno osigurava svakog pojedinca, pa individualna akumulacija novca kao oblik sigurnosti više nije neophodna. Čovjek više neće morati štedjeti da bi osigurao svoju budućnost kao što je to slučaj danas, te se može očekivati značajna dobrovoljna zamjena novca za bodove minulog rada. Svaka komuna treba da osnuje svoju javnu banku. Otkupljeni novac će biti udružen u javnoj banci komune. Komuna će također udružiti i cjelokupne novčane fondove udruženih poduzeća komune. Novac prikupljen porezima od privatnih lica i kompanija se također udružuje.

 

Tako će komuna akumulirati veliku količinu novčanih sredstava. Ekonomska politika socijalizma će iz akumuliranog novca izdvojiti novac namjenjen dohodcima stanovnika kako bi oni mogli kupiti proizvedenu robu i platiti usluge koje koriste. Međutim, kada bi se količina novca u opticaju vezala samo za proizvedenu vrijednost robe tada bi radnici mogli ostvariti dohodak iako se proizvedena roba ne proda na tržištu. Takva proizvodnja bi stvarala zalihe na skladištu i trošila akumuliran novac komune dok komuna ne bi bankrotirala. Zato količinu novca u opticaju treba formirati i prema ostvarenoj novčanoj dobiti na tržištu. Sa tim u vezi količinu novca za dohotke stanovnika treba formirati između vrijednosti ukupno proizvedene vrijednosti robe i usluga u komuni i ostvarene dobiti na tržištu u periodu obračuna. Javna banka komune treba formirati monetarnu politiku komune tako da se ostvarila optimalna produktivnost i ekonomska stabilnost komune.

Takva količina novca se može nazvati dohodak komune. Dohodak komune je manji od količine novca koju komuna posjeduje. Višak novčanih sredstava će se koristi kao obrtna i rezervna novčana sredstva komune.

 

Demokracija u ekonomiji

 

U socijalizmu rukovodioci imaju veliku slobodu odlučivanja u ime društva ukoliko se usude donijeti odluke nezavisno od ljudi, jer će za za svoje odluke neposredno podnositi odgovornost društvu. Svaki član društva će moći bolno kazniti rukovodioca koji donese odluke koje mu ne odgovaraju. U takvim uvjetima ni jedan rukovodilac ne može samostalno preuzeti odgovornost za donošenje političkih odluka koje usmjeravaju cijelo društvo jer ne može sa sigurnošću znati koliko će takve odluke odgovarati članovima društva. 

 

To se prvenstveno odnosi na formiranje makroekonomske politike komune. Iz tog razloga nema sumnje da će uprava komune uključiti stanovnike u proces donošenja odluka o dohodovnoj, fiskalnoj i razvojnoj politici komune. Socijalizam će uvesti novi oblik demokracije u kojem će stanovnici komune odlučivati ​​koliko od svojih prihoda žele izdvojiti za poreze.

 

Uprava komune će nedvojbeno omogućiti stanovništvu da odluči koliki iznos svojih plaća želi izdvojiti za individualnu i zajedničku potrošnju. Fond za individualnu potrošnju definira ukupni iznos novca za prihode svih stanovnike komune, isključujući radnike u privatnim poduzećima jer privatna poduzeća zadržavaju svoju dobit i sama raspodjeljuju plaće. Kolektivna potrošnja definira iznos novca koji pojedinci žele odvojiti od svojih plaća za zajedničku potrošnju svih stanovnika komune.

 

Individualna potrošnja podrazumijeva prihode radnika ali također uključuje porezni novac na plaće radnika u neprofitnim tvrtkama i nezaposlenim osobama. Pojedinačne plaće ljudi se određuju pomoću vrijednosti prošlog i tekućeg rada i ostvarene produktivnosti. Društveni sistem određuje te vrijednosti, i birači u ovom trenutku ne mogu na njih utjecati. U ovom glasanju ljudi samo odlučuju o iznosu novca koji žele izdvojiti iz svojih prihoda za individualnu i zajedničku potrošnju. Svaki čovjek će svoj iskaz svoje odluke upisivati na internetsku aplikaciju povezanu sa centrom za obradu podataka uprave komune.

 

Budući da će bodovi minulog rada određivati visinu prihoda, ljudi će raspodijeliti bodove minulog rada koje posjeduju za individualnu i kolektivnu potrošnju. Na taj način će svaki stanovnik odlučivati srazmjerno posjedovanju bodova minulog rada. Ljudi s vrijednijim minulim radom imat će veću moć u donošenju odluka.

 

Obrazloženje: S obzirom da svi članovi društva nisu jednako doprinijeli stvaranju zajedničkog bogatstva, ne bi trebali imati jednaku moć odlučivanja o fiskalnoj politici društva. Produktivniji rad bi trebao imati veću moć donošenja odluka kako bi se više motivirao. Moć ekonomskog odlučivanja treba se temeljiti na vrijednosti minulog rada koji je određen brojem bodova minulog rada. To će doprinijeti razvoju ekonomije i društva. Ova mjera je ekvivalentna moći glasačkih prava dioničara u kapitalizmu koji dobro funkcionira.

 

Sumirane vrijednosti iskaza svih stanovnika komune za individualnu i zajedničku potrošnju će odrediti ukupan iznos novca za individualnu i zajedničku potrošnju. Tako će društvo izravno kreirati dohodovnu i fiskalnu politiku komune.

 

Ukupna količina novca za individualne dohotke će se raspoređivati stanovništvu komune (radnici u privatnim kompanijama su isključeni) prema zaslugama. Te zasluge će se prvenstveno bazirati na ostvarenoj produktivnosti i na cijenama rada radnika. O tome će biti više riječi u poglavlju “Raspodjela dohodaka.“

 

Društvo treba na isti način odrediti i minimalni dohodak pojedinca, koji će regulirati raspon razlika u visini dohodaka. Na taj način će se regulirati odnos solidarnosti i doho­dovne zainteresiranosti za rad. Ukoliko bi radnici bili nezainteresirani da obavljaju nepogodan rad i time smanjili produktivnost komune, društvo može neposrednim iskazom smanjiti minimalni dohodak radnika. Tako bi dohodovno stimulirali radnike na veći rad čime bi ostvarili veću produktivnost i veći udio u raspodjeli rezultata rada. Sa druge strane ukoliko se u društvu ostvari veća produktivnost nego što je potrebna tada će društvo povećavati minimalni dohodak i na taj način smanjiti dohodovnu stimulaciju rada.

 

Sistem predviđa jedinstvenu poreznu stopu zato što je ona obračunski jednostavnija i zato što je tako stanovništvo može utvrditi neposrednim demokratskim izjašnjavanjem. Današnja regulacija progresivnog poreza koja ima zadatak uspostavljanja socijalne ravnoteže će se zamijeniti pomoću dohodovne politike komune o kojoj će biti više riječi kasnije. Štetni oblici potrošnje po zdravlje kao što je to alkohol i duhan mogu se efikasnije smanjiti razotuđenjem društva nego poreznom politikom.

 

Novac za zajedničku potrošnju će se voljom stanovnika komune raspodijeliti na novac namjenjen razvoju proizvodnje i za zajedničku robnu potrošnju.

 

Novčana sredstva namjenjena razvoju privrede služe za proširenje reprodukcije, za nabavku novih sredstava za proizvodnju ili čitavih postrojenja koja unapređuju proizvodnju. Veća količina novčanih sredstava namjenjenih razvoju privrede će u većoj mjeri angažirati društveni rad u razvoj privrede što bi unaprijedilo sredstva za proizvodnju pa tako i produktivnost. Veće ulaganje u razvoj privrede će osigurati veće društvene pogodnosti u budućnosti ali bi se time smanjila novčana sredstva za tekuću potrošnju pa bi se umanjio individualni i društveni standard. Takav sistem će omogućiti svakoj komuni da se razvija oslanjajući se na vlastite snage. Politika razvoja privrede komune će biti više objašnjena u poglavlju “Razvoj privrede.“

 

Novčana sredstva za zajedničku robnu potrošnju služe za zadovoljenje svih zajedničkih materijalnih potreba društva. Ona se koriste za održavanje postojeće strukture društvenog standarda i za izgradnju novih objekata društvenog standarda. Ta potrošnja podrazumijeva financiranje robne potrošnje u javnom zdravstvu, obrazovanju, sigurnosti, izgradnju i održavanje infrastrukture, itd. Novčana sredstva za zajedničku potrošnju se mogu u određenoj mjeri raspoređivati neposrednim odlukama stanovništva, a kasniju parcijalnu raspodjelu mogu vršiti neposredno zainteresirani i udruženi članovi društva, dok krajnju raspodjelu najmanjih segmenata potrošnje treba da vrši nadležno rukovodstvo i da za istu podnosi neposrednu odgovornost društvu. Veća sredstva za zajedničku potrošnju omogućila bi viši zajednički standard na teret ostalih oblika potrošnje.

 

Iz ukupne mase novca sa zajedničku potrošnju koja u stvari predstavlja porez na dohodak svih stanovnika komune, potrebno je izdvojiti novac za saveznu potrošnju. Ta novčana sredstva služe za potrebe potrošnje države. Količinu novčanih sredstava za saveznu potrošnju određuje savezna skupština putem delegata ili poslanika svih komuna. Kolektivna potrošnja stanovnika komune će biti više objašnjena u poglavlju “Zajednička potrošnja.“

 

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Novi sistem glasanja će se bazirati na trajnoj valjanosti glasa glasača sve dok glasač ne promijeni svoj glas. Osim toga novi sistem po prvi puta omogućava stanovništvu komune da glasaju kada god to zažele. Oni će moći mijenjati svoje iskaze i nekoliko puta dnevno ukoliko to nađu za shodno a sistem će takve promjene brzo i precizno obraditi.

Predloženi sistem će omogućiti stanovništvu komune da u znatnoj mjeri utvrdi zajedničke ekonomske potrebe. Stanovništvo će na temelju vlastitog iskustva uočiti prednosti i mane određenog oblika raspodjele novca pa će vršiti korekcije po svojoj želji tako da svi pojedinci i društvo u cjelini ostvari veće pogodnosti. Na taj način društvo će prihvatiti ekonomsku politiku kao svoju što je jedan od najvažnijih elemenata razotuđenja ekonomije i društva.

 

Poznate zajedničke ekonomske potrebe definiraju makro potrošnju a sa time naravno određuju i proizvodnju. Tako će stanovništvo komune neposredno demokratskim putem formirati makroekonomsku politiku komune. To će biti uvod za formiranje stabilne demokratske planske privrede.

Money

3.1.2.2.4                 Money

Money is a means of payment for goods and services in a market economy. Money in circulation is issued by the state apparatus through the central bank. The state seeks to equate money in circulation with the total value of goods and services produced to enable a stable economy. The central bank regulates the money supply on the market through monetary policy. The main instrument of the state’s economic policy in capitalism is the credit interest rate formation.

 

The government uses low-interest rates to create an expansive monetary policy that stimulates investments. As a result, economic development increases workers’ employment, national income, and society’s welfare. However, the increased mass of money in circulation creates inflation, which raises the prices of goods and leads to instability in the market, which is unfavourable for the economy.

 

The state controls inflation and stabilizes the economy with a restrictive monetary policy that limits the money supply by raising interest rates. Then comes the deflationary tension that suppresses the market, which leads to a recession in production. The recession reduces companies’ profits, increases unemployment, lowers people’s standards, and leads to economic crises.

 

Market regulation of the amount of money in circulation does not create a sufficiently stable economic policy because it is challenging to balance a huge number of independent factors that prevail in the economy. Thus, cyclical fluctuations in the economy occur, which is unfavourable for the economy and society. The state’s monetary policy is much more adapted to anarchic changes in the market than it is based on organized economic policy.

 

A stable economic policy requires a balanced distribution of labour, the known purchasing power of the population, the known needs of society, and an efficient economy that meets society’s needs. A fully balanced economic policy can only be pursued through a developed planned economy, and that is why it will have to be accepted in the future. It will necessarily require creating a monetary policy to ensure adequate money in circulation and democratic control of its use.

 

***

 

The most suitable situation for any economy would be to have the quantity of money in circulation identical to the value of produced commodities. In an ideal case, the economy produces what society needs, and the money in circulation enables purchasing all manufactured goods. This would create economic stability.  

 

Consumers possess a large amount of money. It is much higher than the value of current production and much lower than the total value of everything the society owns because those values were created by turning over the same money. Part of that money is turned over for the needs of payment transactions of production and distribution, and a large amount of money is accumulated to achieve economic security and investments of people. The big problem is that privately accumulated capital is placed freely, making it difficult for the economy to plan production. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce more order in the economic policy of the commune through the process of production planning.

 

The commune does not issue money, but it can acquire it by redeeming accumulated money held by the population using past labour points. A larger quantity of past labour points of workers brings higher incomes, so people who own money can find their interest in exchanging money for past labour points.  By selling money, the commune’s population loses the possibility of lending money with interest but realizes a rise in income proportionately to the increase in the number of past labour points.

 

In a socialist society, everyone is materially secured. As a result, the individuals will no longer have to save to ensure their future, so a significant voluntary exchange of money for past labour points may be expected. Each community should establish its public bank. Redeemed money should be pooled into the public bank of the commune. The commune will also pool the entire cash fund of the merged companies of the commune. The money collected from taxes of individuals and private enterprises will be pooled as well.

 

Thus, the commune will accumulate a large amount of money. The economic policy of socialism will form money intended for the incomes of all the commune inhabitants so that they can buy manufactured goods and pay for the services they use. However, if the amount of money is tied only to the produced value of goods, workers would realize incomes even though the delivered goods are not sold on the market. Such production would create overstock in warehouses and spend accumulated money of the commune, while the commune would not go bankrupt. In this regard, the amount of money for people’s incomes should be formed between the total value produced in the merged public company of the commune and the profit realized on the market in the accounting period. The public bank of the commune should determine the monetary policy to realize the commune’s optimal productivity and economic stability.

 

Such an amount of money may be called the revenue of the commune. The commune’s revenue is less than the amount of money that the commune possesses. The rest of the funds will be used as working capital and reserve funds for the commune.

 

Democracy in Economy

 

In socialism, managers will have the power to make decisions in the name of the people if they dare to do it because they will be directly accountable to people for their decisions. The members of the society will be able to punish a manager who makes decisions that do not serve them. In such conditions, no manager can independently take responsibility for making political decisions that guide the whole society because they cannot know with certainty how much such decisions will suit the members of society.

 

This primarily relates to the formation of the macro-economic policies of the commune.

 

For this reason, there is no doubt that the commune’s management will include the commune’s inhabitants in the decision-making process about the commune’s income, fiscal, and development policy. Socialism will introduce a new form of democracy in which commune residents will decide on how much of their income they want to set aside for taxes.

 

The commune’s management will undoubtedly let the population decide how much of their salaries they want to set for individual and collective spending. The fund on individual expenditures defines the total amount of money for incomes for all commune residents, excluding workers in private enterprises because private enterprises keep their profits and distribute payments themselves. Collective spending defines the amount of money individuals wish to deduct from their salaries for the joined spending of all the commune people.

 

Individual spending implies workers’ incomes but also includes tax money for workers’ salaries in non-profit companies and unemployed people. The individual salaries of people are determined by the values of past and current work and realized productivity. The social system gives these values, and the voters cannot influence them at this moment. In this voting, people decide on the amount of money they want to intend for their individual and collective spending. Each person will write a statement of their decision in the web application associated with the data processing center of the commune administration.

 

Since past labour points will determine the size of income, people will share past labour points they possess for individual and collective spending. In this way, each resident will exercise decision-making power in proportion to the possession of past labour points. People with more valuable past work will have more power in decision-making.

 

The rationale: Considering that all members of society have not equally contributed to the creation of collective wealth, they should not have the same decision-making power regarding the fiscal policy of society. The more productive work should have more decision-making power for better motivation. Economic decision-making power needs to be based on the value of past work determined by the number of past labour points. This will contribute to the development of the economy and society. This measure is equivalent to the power of shareholders’ voting rights in capitalism.

 

Suppose one wishes to allocate more money for individual spending and a smaller amount for collective spending. They will share the value of their past work points in such a ratio. The commune’s leadership should first define the minimum percentage of tax money so that the commune can meet its basic joined spending needs. 

 

The summarized declarations ​​of all the commune inhabitants for individual and collective spending will determine the total amount of money for individual and collective spending. Thus, society will directly create the income and fiscal policies of the commune.

 

The total amount of money for individual incomes (workers in private companies excluded) will be distributed to the commune population according to their merits. These merits will be primarily based on the realized productivity and prices of work of workers. This will be addressed in more detail in the chapter: “The Distribution of Income

 

In the same manner, society may determine the minimum income of individuals, which will regulate the range of incomes among the people. This will regulate the relationship between work merits, solidarity, and income-based work interest. For example, if workers were unwilling to perform undesirable work and thus reduce the productivity of the commune, the people can reduce the minimum income of workers through direct voting. The result would stimulate workers to work more and thus achieve higher productivity and a greater share in the distribution of incomes. On the other hand, if the commune reaches higher productivity than is required, society will increase the minimum income and thus reduce the income stimulation of work.

 

The system provides a single tax rate because it is simpler to calculate, and in this way, the people can determine it through direct democratic voting. Today’s regulation of progressive taxation, which has the task of establishing social balance, will be replaced with the commune’s income policy, which will later be explained more. Harmful forms of spending for health, such as alcohol and tobacco, might be more effectively reduced through the disalienation of society rather than through tax policy.

 

The people will further divide the money for collective spending to develop production and collaborative consumption.

 

Assets intended for the development of the economy provide for the expansion of the productive forces, purchases of new means of production, or complete companies that promote production. A larger quantity of cash assets intended for the development of the economy will engage social work and economic growth to a more significant extent, which would increase the means of production and, accordingly, productivity. More sizeable investments in the development of the economy will ensure major social conveniences in the future; however, cash assets for current spending would decrease, which would also reduce the individual and social standards. Such a system will enable each commune to develop by relying on its forces. The policy of the commune development will be addressed in the chapter: “Development of the Economy.”

 

Assets for collective spending serve to meet all common needs of society. They are used to maintain the existing structure of the social standard and the building of new social standard facilities. This includes funding commodity spending in public health, education, security, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure, etc. Assets for collective spending may, to a certain degree, be distributed by direct decisions of the population, while interested society members may directly make later partial distributions. However, the authorized management needs to make the final distribution of the smallest spending segments for which it will be directly accountable to society. Increased funding for collective spending would allow a higher common standard at the expense of other forms of spending. 

 

The money for the state spending also needs to be set aside from the funds earmarked by people for the collective expenses. This money is used for the expenditure of the state. The amount of money for federal spending is determined by the Federal Assembly through the delegates or representatives of all communes. Collective spending will be addressed in more detail in the chapter: “Collective Spending.”

 

***

 

The new voting system will be based on the unlimited validity of the voters’ votes until each voter themselves changes their vote. Also, the new system will enable people to vote whenever they want. Therefore, they will be able to change their voting statements many times per day if they wish, and the system will not have any problem processing such changes. 

 

The proposed system will significantly allow the commune population to determine the collective economic needs. Based on their own experience, the people will notice the advantages and disadvantages of a particular form of money distribution, adjusting so that all individuals and society realize more significant benefits. In this way, all individuals and society will realize greater conveniences. The community will accept the economic policy as its own, which is one of the essential elements of the disalienation of the economy and society.  

 

Identified collective economic needs define the macro spending and thereby determine the production. In this manner, the commune’s population will directly and democratically create the macro-economic policy of the commune. This will be an introduction to creating a stable, democratically planned economy.  

Commodity Price

3.1.2.2.3        Price of Commodities 

 

Commodities have their sales value expressed by price. In a market economy, the law of supply and demand determines the price of items. Manufacturing possibilities, purchasing power, and society’s needs adjust the cost of things. Commodities also have their manufacturing value based on the cost of production.

 

In socialism, the manufacturing value of commodities should incorporate money intended for the work cost of all workers who produce the commodities (1); the pertaining ratio of the work of workers in the non-profit organizations (2); the pertaining proportion of the unemployed people on the territory of the commune (3); and the working cash assets invested in the production of goods (4).

  

In socialism, calculating the production value of goods is more accurate and just than in capitalism, so it will bring much more justice to wage distribution than it is possible today. The production value of goods can be presented by the formula: 

 

A = ∑ (B x (1+C+D)) + E

 

The formula indicates that the production value of the goods includes the cost of workers who directly produce goods, then the corresponding price of work for employees working in nonprofit organizations, the related earnings for unemployed people, and finally, the value of working capital invested. Hereinafter, production value refers to the total goods produced in a company over the accounting period.

 

A detailed explanation of the formula:  

 

A – The manufacturing value of commodities produced in a company. 

 

B – The total work price of each worker who participates in manufacturing commodities. The price is defined by the number of past labour points and the current labour price of workers.   

 

The quantity of past labour points is determined by the holdings of workers, while workers determine the current labour price by stating it in a freely competitive way. The product of these two coefficients gives the work price of a worker. 

 

C – The coefficient of workers employed in non-profit organizations. It is expressed by the proportion of the work price of all the workers employed in non-profit organizations and those employed in a profit economy on the commune territory.  

 

The proportion of the number of workers employed in the profit economy and the non-profit organizations is regulated by the commune’s management, following the needs and possibilities. The work price of workers in non-profit organizations is established identically to the work prices of workers in the profit economy. The workers in a profit economy produce commodities whose sale generates profit on the commodities market. The workers employed in non-profit organizations, such as teachers and police staff, do not directly realize earnings from customers because their activity is free of charge for the workers in the profit economy and the commune’s inhabitants. This means that the total quantity of produced commodities and services is a fruit of the collective work in both profit economy and non-profit organizations sectors. Workers in the profit economy use the services of non-profit activities; thus, according to the principle of mutuality, the workers in the non-profit activities must use the products of the work performed by the workers in the profit economy. By applying this coefficient, the workers’ contribution to the non-profit organizations is built into the product’s price. The coefficient establishes the share of workers in the distribution of produced commodities.  

 

D – The coefficient of unemployed inhabitants. It is expressed by the proportion of the number of unemployed and employed workers in the profit economy on the commune’s territory in the function of the price of current labour and the quantity of past labour income-based points.  

 

The coefficient represents the entire population that does not work directly: the young, pupils, retired people, homemakers, invalids and, generally, the whole unemployed population in the commune. The unemployed population needs to receive earnings for past and future labour and the economic security of the people. Such payment needs to be incorporated into the price of produced commodities.  

 

The value of the past work of unemployed people determines the number of past labour points they possess. The current labour price of unemployed people determines the commune’s management according to the work needs and the power of the commune’s production. A lower price of current labour for the unemployed will generate smaller earnings, increasing their interest in work. And vice-versa, a higher price of current labour of the unemployed will generate a higher income, which will decrease the income-based work interest. In this way, the commune’s management will direct social work following social and production needs. For example, an increase in the price of current labour of students would stimulate education, etc.  

 

These coefficients represent the income appropriations for all inhabitants in the commune in the cost of commodities. By selling goods on the market, all the commune inhabitants realize their share of the realized profit.

 

 

E – The quantity of cash working assets spent to produce the commodities. Operating assets understand the value of the parts of products manufactured by other producers and refer to intermediates, semi-finished products, and raw materials.  

 

Working money assets are mostly set aside from the commune’s reserve fund, which is formed by redeeming cash assets in exchange for past labour points. Operating assets are taken according to the needs of the profit economy. However, the producers have the obligation of their repayment during the accounting period.

 

In the accounting period, factors C and D are unique and might be calculated by the coefficient k. Then manufacturing price of commodities can be expressed by the formula:  

 

C = ∑ (A x k) + B

 

 

The sum of all labour costs of workers involved in manufacturing products burdened with contributions for workers in the non-profit companies and unemployed people gives the total labour cost for producing a particular product. By adding the value of working capital spent, one gets the manufactured value of commodities.

 

This method of calculating the value of the price of goods equates the total value of all goods produced in the commune with the income of the commune’s inhabitants. In other words, it equates the prices of goods with the purchasing power of society. In this way, the production and distribution system achieves balance.

 

***

 

It is crucial to determine the production value of goods because it presents the efficiency of the business performance of enterprises in the commune. If the production value of goods is higher than the market price, the company is unprofitable. And if the production value of goods is lower than the market price, the company operates profitably.

 

Due to the different work equipment, enterprises’ productivity varies, and by selling their commodities on the free market, they realize various incomes. In a free choice of labour system through labour competition, jobs that generate higher salaries with equal workloads would arouse great interest among workers. On the other hand, lower-income jobs with similar workloads would arouse less interest. This would undoubtedly cause instability in the labour market and thus in society.

 

The commune’s management needs to solve the issue of balancing the demand for all work posts in the commune’s enterprises by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of different forms of production. For example, the balance may be increased by employing more workers in enterprises, realizing a more significant profit and decreasing the number of workers in companies that realize smaller profits. If it is not economically justified, the balance may be established and more significant profits earned by investing in companies that already produce profit and closing down the loss-making enterprises. If such an option is not justified, the balance lies in investing in the enterprises operating with smaller profits, which would achieve higher productivity and, accordingly, an increase in profit.  

 

However, the difference in productivity and the realized income among enterprises in the commune will exist as long as a difference in the production equipment exists. This is because sizeable automation of the production process will always significantly reduce the necessary number of workers. In this way, the productivity and income of workers in such a company will rise in relation to the producers of the commune having a lower level of automation in their production. Hence, if work competition were the only coordinator between the supply and demand of work, it would always create instabilities in the labour division created by the needs of workers for better-paid jobs.

 

The proposed payment settlement in which the total income of all workers corresponds to the full value of goods and services produced predicts that the entire surplus income of enterprises with better material equipment in the commune will correspond to the lack of income of companies with lower material equipment in the commune.

 

A balance between supply and demand for labour in the commune can be achieved in the way that companies that perform the surplus-value, in which workers earn more than they demand, give up their surplus value in favour of companies making less money than workers demand. This is a subvention. The subvention is necessary because, in the system of free labour competition, workers would compete for work in more productive companies, where they would earn more money than they asked. This would bring instabilities in the division of labour. Such a measure has the sole task of equalizing the income interest of workers for all necessary jobs.

 

In this way, the commune becomes the basic working organization. It will allow all goods in all enterprises of the commune to be placed at market value as this is still the best possible distribution of goods to consumers. At the same time, in socialism, all workers will earn incomes in proportion to the value of work they share in the production process, regardless of the companies’ revenue.

 

Workers who have more past labour points will earn higher incomes even in companies that make less profit in the market. They will not be an income burden to their companies because the salaries will spill over between companies. Workers who have a considerable number of past work points with which they earn high incomes will not burden their co-workers. By sharing the revenue, everyone will make wages equal to the price of labour they asked for achieved productivity. Highly productive companies will be deprived of the surplus value achieved thanks to better equipment or market advantages, favouring workers who earn less than they demanded for their work.

 

From the standpoint of capitalistic entrepreneurship, socialism is fully non-stimulating because it does not allow the earning of extra profit by speculations beyond direct work. Instead, socialism will form a new work motivation that will arise directly from the competition for work, from the need to find and confirm individual productive power, which is one of the most critical drivers.

 

In socialism, speculations are only possible by altering statements of the coefficient of responsibility directly linked with work productivity and the business performance of the work collective. Individual and collective profits will continue to be achieved thanks to the rise in productivity. However, these profits will be smaller as they will not include the privileges resulting from a better status in society, from the better work equipment in production, or random market conveniences, but exclusively from the equal struggle of workers in accomplishing more significant benefits for society.  

 

In other words, if workers can equally increase the productivity of the work collective by using newly developed means of production, they cannot speak of their essential contribution to the production, and they need not be specially rewarded. However, suppose an individual worker increases their productivity more than other workers can in their position. In that case, this will be their contribution to the production process and will have to be accepted and rewarded.  

 

The product of all commodities prices and the number of produced goods give the total value of produced goods. The realization of such production requires an equivalent amount of money in circulation as a means of payment for the goods.  

 

Cijena robe

3.1.2.2.3       Cijena robe

 
Roba ima svoju prometnu vrijednost izraženu cijenom. U tržišnoj privredi cijenu robe određuje zakon ponude i potražnje. Cijena proizvoda se usklađuje sa proizvodnim mogućnostima, kupovnom moći i potrebama društva. Roba također ima svoju proizvodnu vrijednost koja je bazirana na troškovima proizvodnje.
 
U socijalizmu proizvodna vrijednost robe treba biti određena: cijenom rada svih radnika koji proizvode robu (1); pripadajućem odnosu cijene rada radnika u neprofitnoj privredi (2); pripadajućem odnosu cijene rada nezaposlenih ljudi na teritoriji komune (3), i pomoću obrtnih novčanih sredstava uloženih u proizvodnju robe (4).

 

U socijalizmu obračun proizvodne vrijednosti robe je precizniji i pravedniji nego u kapitalizmu pa će omogućiti više pravde u sistemu raspodjele dobara nego što je to danas moguće. Proizvodnu vrijednost robe je moguće prikazati formulom:

 

A =∑ ( B x (1+C+D )) + E

 

Formula ukazuje da proizvodna vrijednost robe uključuje cijenu rada radnika koji neposredno proizvode robu, zatim davanja za radnike u neprofitnim radnim organizacijama, i za nezaposlene radnike kao i vrijednost uloženih obrtnih sredstava. U daljem tekstu proizvodna vrijednost se odnosi na ukupno proizvedenu robu u poduzeću u periodu obračuna od mjesec dana.


Detaljnije obrazloženje formule:
 
A – Proizvodna vrijednost robe poduzeća u mjesec dana. 

B – Cijena rada svakog pojedinog radnika koji sudjeluje u izradi proizvoda. Cijenu definira količina dohodovnih bodova minulog rada i cijena tekućeg rada radnika.  

Količina bodova minulog rada određena je posjedom radnika a cijenu tekućeg rada određuju radnici slobodnim konkurentskim iskazom. Produkt ta dva vrijednosna koeficijenta daje cijenu rada radnika

C – Koeficijent zaposlenih radnika u neprofitnim organizacijama. Taj koeficijent se izražava omjerom cijene rada svih zaposlenih radnika u neprofitnim organizacijama i svih zaposlenih radnika u profitnoj privredi na području komune.  

Omjer količine radnika zaposlenih u profitnoj privredi i neprofitnim organizacijama regulira rukovodstvo komune prema potrebama i mogućnostima. Cijena rada radnika u neprofitnim organizacijama utvrđuje se identično kao i radnika u profitnoj privredi. Radnici u profitnoj privredi proizvode robu čijom prodajom ostvaruju dobit na tržištu roba. Radnici zaposleni u neprofitnim organizacijama kao što su učitelji i policajci za svoj rad ne ostvaruju neposredno novčanu dobit iz razloga što je ista djelatnost  besplatna radnicima u profitnoj privredi i stanovništvu komune. To znači da su ukupna proizvedena roba i usluge plod zajedničkog rada u profitnoj privredi i neprofitnoj privredi. Kako svi radnici u profitnoj privredi koriste usluge neprofitnih privrednih djelatnosti tako po principu uzajamnosti i radnici neprofitnih privrednih djelatnosti moraju koristiti proizvode rada radnika u profitnoj privredi. Primjenom ovog koeficijenta u cijenu proizvoda se ugrađuje doprinos radnika u neprofitnoj privredi i faktički se utvrđuje njihov udio u raspodjeli proizvoda rada radnika u profitnoj privredi.
 
D – Koeficijent nezaposlenih stanovnika a izražava se omjerom količine nezaposlenih i zaposlenih radnika u profitnoj privredi na području komune u funkciji cijene tekućeg rada i količine dohodovnih bodova minulog rada.
 
Koeficijent zastupa cjelokupno stanovništvo koje neposredno ne privređuje: mlade, učenike, umirovljenike, domaćice, invalide i općenito svo stanovništvo koje nije zaposleno u poduzećima komune. Nezaposleno stanovništvo u ime minulog i budućeg rada kao i zbog ekonomske sigurnosti stanovništva, treba da prima dohodak i taj dohodak treba da se uračunava u cijenu proizvedene robe.  

Količina bodova minulog rada nezaposlenih radnika određena je vrijednošću njihovog minulog rada. Cijenu tekućeg rada nezaposlenih radnika određuje rukovodstvo komune. Manja cijena tekućeg rada nezaposlenih će formirati manji dohodak što bi povećavalo interes za radom. I obratno, veća cijena tekućeg rada nezaposlenog stanovništva će formirati veći dohodak čime će se smanjiti dohodovni radni interes. Na taj način rukovodstvo komune usmjerava društveno djelovanje prema društvenim i proizvodnim potrebama. Na primjer, povećanje cijene tekućeg rada učenika i studenta stimuliralo bi obrazovanje.  

Navedeni koeficijenti zastupaju dohodovna davanja svim stanovnicima komune u cijeni koštanja robe. Prodajom robe na tržištu svi stanovnici komune ostvaruju svoj udio u ostvarenoj dobiti.

E – Količina novčanih obrtnih sredstava utrošenih na proizvodnju robe. Obrtna sredstva podrazumjevaju vrijednost dijela proizvoda koji proizvode drugi proizvođači, a odnose se na repromaterijal, poluproizvode i sirovine.  

Obrtna sredstva se uglavnom izdvajaju iz rezervnog fonda komune formiranog otkupom novčanih sredstava u zamjenu za bodove minulog rada. Obrtna sredstva se uzimaju prema potrebama privrede ali sa obavezom vraćanja u periodu obračuna.

U periodu obračuna faktori C i D su jedinstveni pa se mogu prikazati koeficijentom k. Proizvodna cijena robe se može izraziti formulom:

 

A =∑ ( B x k) + E


Suma svih cijena rada radnika koji sudjeluju u izradi proizvoda opterećena doprinosima za radnike u neprivredi i nezaposlenim radnicima daje ukupnu cijenu rada za izradu određenog proizvoda. Pridoda li se tome vrijednost utrošenih obrtnih sredstava dobija se proizvodna vrijednost robe. 

 

Ovim načinom računanja vrijednosti cijene robe se izjednačava ukupna vrijednost cjelokupne robe proizvedene u komuni sa dohotkom stanovnika komune. Drugim riječima izjednačuju se cijene robe sa kupovnom moći društva. Tako se ostvaruje ravnoteža u sistemu proizvodnje i raspodjele.

 

***

 

Jako je važno utvrditi proizvodnu vrijednost robe zato što se pomoću nje može vidjeti efikasnost poslovanja poduzeća u komuni. Tamo gdje je proizvodna vrijednost robe veća nego tržišna cijena robe poduzeće posluje nerentabilno. A tamo gdje je proizvodna vrijednost robe manja od tržišne cijene robe poduzeće posluje profitabilno.

 

Uslijed različite materijalne opremljenosti rada poduzeća ostvaruju različitu produktivnost a plasmanom robe na slobodnom tržištu ostvaruju različite dohotke. U sistemu slobodnog izbora rada radnom konkurencijom radna mjesta koja ostvaruju veći dohodak uz jednaka radna opterećenja bi pobudila velik interes radnika. Sa druge strane radna mjesta koja ostvaruju manji dohodak uz jednaka radna opterećenja bi pobudila znatno manji interes. To bi zasigurno izazvalo nestabilnost na tržištu rada pa tako i u društvu. 


Uravnoteženje potražnje za svim radnim mjestima u poduzećima komune treba da riješi rukovodstvo komune analizom prednosti i nedostataka različitih oblika proizvodnje. Ravnoteža se može poboljšati zapošljavanjem većeg broja radnika u poduzećima koja ostvaruju veću dobit i smanjivanjem broja zaposlenih radnika u poduzećima koja ostvaruju manju dobit. Ukoliko takva opcija nije ekonomski opravdana ravnoteža se može uspostaviti, a također se mogu povećati profiti, investiranjem u poduzeća koja već ostvaruju dobit i zatvaranjem poduzeća koja proizvode gubitke. Ukoliko ni takva opcija nije opravdana, ravnoteža se može uspostaviti investiranjem u poduzeća koja posluju sa manjim dobiti što bi ostvarilo veću produktivnost pa tako i povećanje dobiti.
 
Međutim, razlika u produktivnosti pa tako i u ostvarenom dohotku između poduzeća u komuni će postojati dokle god postoji razlika u materijalnoj opremljenosti rada. Velika automatizacija procesa proizvodnje će uvijek značajno smanjivati potreban rad radnika. Na taj način će povećavati produktivnost i dohodak radnika u odnosu na proizvođače u komuni koji imaju manju automatizaciju proizvodnje. Dakle, ukoliko bi radna konkurencija bila jedini koordinator između ponude i potražnje rada, ona bi stvarala nestabilnosti u raspodjeli rada nastalu potražnjom radnika za bolje plaćenim poslovima. 

Predloženi sistem obračuna platnog prometa u kojem ukupan dohodak svih radnika u komuni odgovara ukupnoj vrijednosti proizvedenih roba i usluga, predviđa da će ukupan višak dohotka koji ostvare poduzeća sa boljom materijalnom opremljenošću rada odgovarati manjku dohodka koji ostvaruju poduzeća sa slabijom materijalnom opremljenošću rada.  

 

Ravnoteža između ponude i potražnje za radnom snagom u komuni se može postići na taj način da se poduzeća koja ostvaruju višak vrijednosti, u kojima radnici zarađuju više nego što traže, odriču svog viška vrijednosti u korist poduzeća koja zarađuju manje novca nego što radnici traže. Ovo je subvencija. Subvencija je nužna jer bi se u sistemu slobodne konkurencije radnika radnici natjecali za posao u produktivnijim poduzećima, gdje bi zarađivali više novca nego što su tražili. To bi dovelo do nestabilnosti u podjeli rada. Takva mjera ima isključivu zadaću da izjednači dohodovni interes radnika za sve potrebne poslove.

 

Na taj način komuna postaje osnovna radna organizacija. Ona će prelijevanjem dohotka omogućiti da se sva roba u svim poduzećima komune plasira po tržišnoj vrijednosti jer je to još uvijek najbolja moguća distribucija robe potrošačima. Ujedno svi radnici će ostvariti dohodak proporcionalno vrijednosti udjela njihovog rada u procesu proizvodnje bez obzira na prihode koje poduzeća ostvaruju.

 

Radnici koji imaju više bodova minulog rada će ostvarit veće dohotke čak i u poduzećima koje ostvaruju manju dobit na tržištu. Oni neće biti dohodovni teret u svojim kompanijama zato će se dohodci prelijevati između kompanija. Radnici koji imaju veliki broj bodova minulog rada sa kojim ostvaruju velike dohotke neće opterećivati svoje suradnike jer će prelijevanjem dohotka svi ostvarivati plaće istovjetne cijeni rada koju su tražili za postignutu produktivnost. Visoko produktivne kompanije će biti uskraćene za višak vrijednosti ostvaren zahvaljujući boljoj opremi ili tržišnim prednostima, favorizirajući radnike koji zarađuju manje nego što su tražili za ostvareni rad.

 

Sa stanovišta kapitalističkog privatnog poduzetništva socijalizam je potpuno destimulativan jer ne omogućava stvaranje profita špekulacijama izvan neposrednog rada. Umjesto toga socijalizam će formirati novu radnu stimulaciju koja će proizaći neposredno iz radne konkurencije. Iz potreba nalaženja i potvrde individualne produktivne moći koja predstavlja jedan od najznačajnijih pokretača čovjeka.


U socijalizmu špekulacije su moguće samo pomoću različitog iskaza koeficijenta odgovornosti koji se neposredno veže za produktivnost rada radnika i poslovanje kolektiva. I dalje će se ostvarivati individualni i kolektivni profiti nastali porastom produktivnosti ali ti profiti će biti manji jer neće uključivati privilegije nastale boljim položajem u društvu, boljom materijalnom opremljenošću rada u proizvodnji i slučajnih tržišnih pogodnosti već isključivo ravnopravnom borbom radnika za ostvarenje većih pogodnosti u društvu. 

Drugim rječima, ako svaki radnik koristeći novija razvijena sredstva za proizvodnju može podjednako povećati produktivnost kolektiva tu se ne može govoriti o njegovom značajnom doprinosu u proizvodnji i on ne treba biti posebno nagrađen. Ali ukoliko pojedini radnik poveća produktivnost više nego što bi to mogli ostvariti drugi radnici na njegovom položaju onda je to njegov doprinos i isti se treba priznati i nagraditi. 

 

Produkt svih cijena proizvoda i količine proizvoda daje ukupnu vrijednost tekuće proizvedene robe. Realizacija takve proizvodnje zahtjeva ekvivalentnu količinu novca u opticaju kao platežno sredstvo robe.

 

Labour Division

3.1.2.2.2         Work Division   

 

Socialism will introduce significant changes in the system of labour division. The disadvantage of today’s division of labour lies in the insufficient possibility of choosing work. Namely, occupied jobs are not accessible to other candidates and unemployed people. Even under capitalism, such positions are privileged and do not achieve sufficient economic productivity. Therefore, socialism will introduce a constantly open competition for each job and employ the best worker available.

 

In socialist production, all jobs will be subject to labour competition in the labour market within the operational possibilities that every job has. The worker who offers the highest productivity, responsibility and the lowest price of labour will exercise the right to work in every job position.

 

The socialist work organization in the commune may freely vary from a centralized production organization to an entirely liberal business operation of enterprises. The commune’s management will establish the work division and the decision-making power in production, resulting in the most significant benefits for the commune. The managers of the commune will organize production to achieve maximum productivity. They will have the authority to form new companies and shut down companies that do not perform sufficient productivity.

 

Managers must respect the production obligations of companies. If the volume of needs for production decreases, they will reduce the number of workers who perform them until the possible closure of the company. Workers whose employment is terminated due to the redirection of the economy are recognized as having fulfilled their contractual obligations and therefore receive rewards for work as if they had fulfilled their responsibilities and search for new jobs provided by the management.

 

The management will have great operational power, which is necessary for establishing fast and efficient coordination of work, which is again essential for good economic performance. Some may compare such power to the power of dictators. Still, nothing will be further from that because the managers will directly owe the responsibility to the people and because they can be replaced at any moment.

 

Under the pressure of labour competition, every worker will strive to achieve maximum productivity within their workplace’s work competencies. Changes in the authority at each workplace are possible only by agreement between the employee and manager, provided that the managers have the right to decide. In the transition period, the work of managers will be controlled by commune assemblies and worker councils, but most likely, people will give up on it when the system shows it is more efficient without them.

 

Private companies will continue to produce just as they do today.

 

***

 

A worker who offers the highest productivity and responsibility and the lowest price of their current labour is the most suitable for the collective staff and society. Therefore, they should get the right to work at such work post. Thus, each work, management included, may be defined in the function of productivity, responsibility, and the work price. To compare the different work functions more efficiently, it is necessary to express the mentioned values for each work post by the following coefficient:   

This formula will require the coordination of influences of each variable. After that it will give the value that points to the competitive capability of a worker for a needed work post. Each worker proposes a magnitude of coefficients according to their own capabilities for the job they wish to perform. A worker who offers a higher productivity, a higher labour responsibility, and a lower current work price will win the right to work at the desired work post. Besides that, the realized higher C-of work competition allows each worker to take the work post of another worker with the obligation to assume all labour obligations and responsibilities of that work post.

 

Labour Productivity  

 

Each work has its measure of productivity. Today, the measure of productivity can be in the most straightforward, most comprehensive, and most efficient manner determined by profit on the market. Cash profit in the free market involves all elements of productive business activity, such as the quantity and quality of work, cost-effectiveness, rationality, usability, serviceability, etc. Profit is the social evaluation of the success of the business performance. However, there are no commodity-money relations within the enterprise, so productivity needs to be expressed by the quantity and quality of the goods and services produced in a determined time interval. 

 

Where it is impossible to precisely establish the labour productivity by the produced goods or where the establishment of productivity would be time-consuming, productivity can be expressed by assessing the production value. Existing productivity defined by grade for each work post has the value of 1 (one). A worker believing that they can increase their productivity by 10% will offer the assessment of their productivity higher by 10% of existing productivity, and the value of their envisaged productivity will then be 1.1. The work assessment may replace all other forms of labour productivity valuation. Each worker can show their C-productivity by the formula: 

The envisaged productivity expressed in money, products, or work estimate, and if identical with the existing one, will form the coefficient 1 (one). A coefficient larger than 1 (one) will indicate a work more productive than the existing one. A worker who offers a larger coefficient will exercise their right to the desired work post.  

 

Once the accounting period is over, it is necessary to valorize the realized productivity to establish the worker’s success in the work offer. The realized productivity may be presented by a coefficient with the following formula:  

The realized productivity expressed by cash profit on the market may efficiently show the success of the business activity, and other forms of productivity valorization are, therefore, unnecessary. However, the said form of work valorization applies only to self-employed entrepreneurs and management of the associated labour in the economy.  

 

In the direct production of commodities, the volume of realized and envisaged quantity of products and services may establish productivity. However, where the number of products and services cannot precisely express productivity or establishing the amount would be time-consuming, an assessment of indirect work value will be introduced.  

 

The evaluation of workers’ productivity may be given by managing boards, worker’s councils, and workers among themselves. The managing boards and workers councils of enterprises will monitor and grade the operational improvements and declines of workers. Their grades may show the realized productivity of workers. However, the workers know the quality and shortcomings of each other the best, so the best evaluation of workers would give they among themselves. They should get an equal right to anonymously evaluate the work of several others as a response to their proposed productivity.

 

The grade received will be a confirmation or negation of the envisaged rate that each worker has given to themselves to offer their productivity. The proposed subjective grade of a worker’s productivity will get its confirmation or negation, influencing the production development of objective value categories.  Work valorization is necessary not only for establishing the accountability of workers for the realized productivity but also as a determination that defines recognition of the individual’s essential powers. Individuals need an objective scale of values to get to know themselves objectively and the possibility of their improvement.  

 

The coefficient of realized productivity that realizes the value higher than 1 (one) will represent the productivity realized in a volume larger than envisaged and will also get a higher income. And vice-versa, the coefficient of realized productivity smaller than 1 (one) will represent the productivity realized in a volume smaller than envisaged, so that the income will also be smaller.  

 

It should be emphasized that the presented bookkeeping is based on the capitalist form of running the economy, which is quite demanding. Nevertheless, it is presented in such a way that it could explain the new economy to people who think traditionally. The socialist economy will accept the principle of democratic anarchy, which will apply significantly simpler bookkeeping than in capitalism but will not lag behind it

 

 

Responsibility of Workers  

 

Without a defined method of bearing responsibility, workers would not be bound to implement their proposed productivity. In this way, their declarations in the work competition would be exaggerated, and work results could not follow them. Such irresponsibility could have catastrophic consequences for the economy. Therefore, it is necessary to set up a system by which every worker will bear responsibility for realizing their envisaged productivity. It needs to be based on the coefficient of realized productivity. The method of responsibility bearing needs to be thorough, multi-layered and efficient.  

 

Each worker needs to bear responsibility for their work. Since their job is non-alienable from the collective’s work, they thus also take responsibility for the productivity of the collective. The level of responsibility assumed by a worker may be set by the coefficient of responsibility.  

 

Let it be assumed that the average coefficient of responsibility gets the value of 1 (one). Let it be assumed that the interval between the minimal and maximal responsibility is 0.1 to 10. The responsibility set by the value equal to 0.1 would be the minimum, and that set by the number 10 would be the maximum responsibility. Let each worker set the level of commitment that they may assume for their work and the collective work expressed by the coefficient. A higher coefficient of responsibility needs to render higher work competitiveness in the work market for performing work at every public work post and vice-versa.  

 

Workers will primarily bear responsibility in the production process using their past work points. The total quantity of past labour points of all workers in the commune needs to be equal to the realized revenue of the commune. Economic enterprises that realize a rise in productivity will realize a surplus of cash assets. They will distribute that surplus to workers in the form of past labour points proportionately to their coefficient of responsibility. Conversely, if enterprises lose money, it will be deducted from the past labour points of all workers proportionately to the coefficient of their responsibility.

 

Enterprises in non-profit sectors, such as administration, possibly health care, education and other activities proclaimed by the commune through its leaders and the assembly, do not realize direct income in the market. Instead, they realize it by the appropriations from the commune’s revenue. In non-profit companies, the measure of the production value needs to be based on the satisfaction of service users. Therefore, a higher grade from the service users will be equivalent to a higher profit for economic enterprises. In this way, non-profit companies will have a productivity measure and responsibility for their production activity.  

 

The system needs to fully equalize the measure of success in the business activity of profit and non-profit companies. By applying mathematical coefficients, it is possible to compare the revenue of the profit economy and the realized productivity of the non-profit organizations expressed in any magnitude, including the productivity assessment.

 

Unemployed inhabitants will also have some C-responsibility set by leaders and adopted by the assembly of the commune. They can, on this basis, receive or lose past labour points but in a smaller quantity than workers in production. In this way, the entire population of the commune will bear responsibility for the commune’s productivity.

 

Since the production or, more precisely, the profit in the market may show oscillations in the periods of accounting, collective responsibility by way of past labour points needs to be linked with the period when the business activity of an enterprise shows objective indicators of success. Of course, the accounting period may be different for different productions; however, it may be considered that productivity that shows smaller or larger oscillations in the monthly period will give a realistic balance of productivity in one year.

 

Once the quantity of past labour points that each enterprise realizes or loses is known, then distribution or deduction of these points will be carried out proportionately to the coefficients of responsibility of workers. By applying computer technology in the period of accounting, the distribution of past labour points, as well as their deduction, can be calculated for an unlimited number of workers by the formula:

Worker-1 : Worker-2 : Worker-3 : …. : Worker-n =

C-respons.-1 : C-respons.-2 : C-respons.-3 : …. : C-respons.-n

 

Then computer technology can quickly and easily produce the results in the form of:

 

Worker-1 = +/- Quantity of Points-1,

Worker-2 = +/- Quantity of Points-2,

Worker-3 = +/- Quantity of Points-3,

……

Worker-n = +/- Quantity of Points-n

 

 

The obtained values are different magnitudes expressed in past labour points added to (or deducted from) the quantities of past labour points held by workers. 

 

An example:  A worker who stated a coefficient of responsibility of 1.5 in the case of a rise in profit of the enterprise would realize, on account of the responsibility function, a three times larger gain of past labour points than a worker who stated a coefficient of responsibility of 0.5. And vice versa, they would gain a three times larger loss of the past labour points in the case of money losses by the enterprise.  

 

In the proposed system, each worker bears responsibility for the collective work proportionately to the stated size of the coefficient of responsibility. In this way, workers become active creators of their conveniences and inconveniences and are no longer passive collective members. Furthermore, such commitment will require that workers become familiar with the consequences of company businesses, which will largely contribute to overcoming alienation in production.  

 

In the capitalistic form of production, a more significant profit is, as a general rule, related to a higher risk of investing money. The new system introduces C-responsibilities with which the workers can, according to their own will, speculate the risk assumed for the success of the collective production. However, such speculation is non-alienable from the direct work of the workers, which will contribute to better knowledge about the economic process, which will again contribute to the rise of the workers’ responsibility for the output. A higher commitment requires a higher degree of confidence in the community, which will result in larger productivity and prosperity of society. A higher degree of responsibility will be formed by workers who are more familiar with business flows and have more confidence in themselves and the collective.  

 

***

 

Besides the collective responsibility of workers, workers’ personal responsibility in the production processes needs to be defined. Workers individually might produce benefits and disadvantages in the joint process of production. To create a productive orientation of society that will motivate productive work and prevent irresponsibility in the production processes, it will be necessary to determine principles of rewarding and sanctioning the workers by a certain number of past labour points. Such remunerating and sanctioning of workers should be carried out by the arbitration commissions of the company following the company regulations.

 

However, the best way to determine individual responsibility will likely be through mutual evaluation of workers through democratic anarchy. Democratic anarchy would reward good and punish bad workers in the value of the coefficient of responsibility that workers proposed for their work. Let each positive assessment bring the employee points of past work in the value of their coefficient of responsibility. Conversely, let each negative assessment deprive the employee of the points of past work in the function of their coefficient of responsibility.

 

Such a system of evaluating the value of work and submitting responsibilities represents all the influences that work brings in the broadest sense. It may reward any benefit and sanction any inconvenience that a worker does to another worker or production. Every worker will be careful not to cause inconvenience or cause as minor inconvenience as possible to any other worker and the production processes. This will be the essence of a productive social orientation that will improve interpersonal relationships and production.

 

For example: let us arbitrarily assume that the commune’s average income is 100,000 monetary units. In that case, the average quantity of past labour points is 100,000. If workers cannot assume a great responsibility for their work, they will opt for a small coefficient of responsibility. For example, if they propose their coefficient of responsibility at 0,1, one positive evaluation would bring them 0,1 point, and five negative votes -0,5 points. Then in the first case, the worker with the average quantity of past labour points will have 100,000.1, and in the second case, 99,999.5 points.

 

A worker wishing to increase their work competitiveness may also increase their coefficient of responsibility. For example, the coefficient of responsibility of 1,2 will bring 12 points to the worker who gets ten positive evaluations. If the same worker has 100,000 past labour income points, they will have 100.012 points after the assessment. If they get 20 negative votes, 24 points will be deducted, and they will thus, after that, have 99.976 income points. The evaluations will be given monthly so that the mutual evaluation system will require highly responsible work. It should be repeated that the examples are entirely arbitrary and that implementation of such measures in practice will require a broad study and social acceptability.

 

Once democratic anarchy is accepted in society, workers will no longer have to offer productivity. It will be assumed that their work productivity should meet the needs of consumers and the collectives of joint production. The price of labour will be standardized in the same way that the costs of goods on the market today are standardized. In practice, the greatest responsibility that every worker offers for any job will be the main, if not the only, indicator of workers’ productive power. The example above shows that the fine-tuning of workers’ responsibilities will be determined quickly and efficiently through democratic anarchy.

 

By accepting democratic anarchy, productivity offered by the politicians and managers loses its meaning. For example, suppose people think that their work is not satisfactory. Then, they will get negative evaluations regardless of what productivity they offered and achieved, or if they won the elections. 

 

***

 

There is no doubt that in socialism, each worker will be cautious before declaring their productivity and degree of responsibility. Such cautiousness will prevent hasty statements and voluntarism, which are dangerous to production processes. The system will allow each worker to know their capacity and act according to their ability, thus meeting their needs. Such an act is a precondition for a constructive orientation of society.  

 

The unemployed population should also bear responsibility for their activities, but the commune’s leadership will set their responsibility coefficient considering they do not work. Therefore, they will probably bear the lowest responsibility in the production processes. However, their social responsibility will be sufficient to behave with respect towards society and its environment. This means that the unemployed people may also be rewarded and punished by community members for their behaviour in the community. They will be getting and losing the points of past work in the value of the minimum coefficient of responsibility in the commune. In this way, the entire population of the commune gets the right to evaluate other people’s behaviour and be evaluated by others for their behaviour. It will significantly contribute to the betterment of society  

 

The total amount of past work points of all commune residents should be equal to the realized revenue of the commune. After all the additions and subtractions of past labour points related to the individual responsibility of all commune residents, it is necessary to settle the total amount of past labour points of all people with the revenue of the commune. The final settlement can be made in proportion to the coefficient of responsibility of the people in the same way as rewards and penalties are calculated in companies.

 

 

Current Labour Price 

 

Finally, the price of current labour forms the competitive power in selecting the work. The current labour price depends on all the conveniences and inconveniences that work brings in realizing the required productivity concerning the conveniences and inconveniences of other forms of work or from the state outside of work.

 

The system envisages workers set the current labour price by themselves by a coefficient within a value range from 0.1 to 10. The average price of present labour will have a value of 1(one); a work twice as inconvenient will have a price equal to a value of 2, while the job twice as convenient will have a price of 0.5.  

 

A worker who seeks a lower current labour price on the labour market for equal productivity will realize greater work competitiveness. The system of labour competition will form a threshold value of the current labour price for each job, which will be accepted as an objective by society. Such a current labour price will be one of the foundations for creating a just income distribution. Such a price of labour will be one of the foundations of building a just society.

 

***

 

Capitalism will face a robust political demand to reduce the work hours of workers until full employment is provided. It will employ all people who want to work, which means that capitalism’s unfavourable form of unemployment will no longer exist. Reducing working hours will increase the demand for workers. Increased worker demand will increase workers’ wages and reduce employers’ profits. Workers’ rights will grow while employers will lose their privileges. This will make capital decrease its significance. The owners of low-profit companies facing higher labour costs might be interested in selling their companies to the commune.

 

Owners of private companies that make high profits will not be interested in selling their property to the commune. Such companies will continue their production as they do today. Socialism can begin to be realized even if no private entrepreneur unites their property in the commune. Then the socialist system will be based on organizations and institutions owned by the commune. Socialism will then show significant progress in production.

 

Socialism will introduce workers’ competition for every public job. No economy can be more productive than one in which every job gets the best available worker. Private companies will not be able to allocate workers efficiently enough to compete with public companies so that public companies will become more productive and profitable than private ones. Above all, private companies will not be able to accept workers’ participation in the distribution of profits as workers in public companies will be able to. As a result, workers will be less interested in working in private companies. Consequently, working in private companies will not be as attractive to workers as working in public companies.

 

The lower productivity of private companies and the lower interest of workers to work in them represent the end of capitalism. At the beginning of implementing the socialist form of production in public companies, private companies will show interest in joining the public companies of the commune. In return for their property, the owners of private companies will receive the equivalent in points of past work that will bring them a proportionately higher income in public companies. In addition, the owners of private companies will realize that socialism is more stable to oscillations in the economy, ensuring greater stability of the values ​​they possess. If the owners of private companies could join socialism today, they would most likely do so because they would preserve the value of their capital more in the frequent problems of capitalism.

 

The commune should also allow residents to sell their past labour points for money. Thus, the points of past work could become a form of humanistic actions in which the commune population will have confidence. In socialism, private entrepreneurs may be interested in selling their property to the commune. Over time, the commune can purchase stock shares, real estate and other valuables owned by the commune’s inhabitants. When the owners of private property leave their property to society, their amount of past labour points will replace the values ​​of the capitalist system and supplement them with new values ​​that will enable the further prosperity of society.

 

***

 

People have constantly been pressured by authoritarian forces that brought them a sense of inferiority. The reaction to that creates a need for superiority over other people. This is wrong, but since such behaviour exists, it must be accepted as a reality that will prevail in socialism. People need to show their power through competitions. Being a winner is of great value to people because it proves their power. Victory compensates for the subjective experience of powerlessness.

 

Labour competition is a constant struggle to achieve greater productivity. It is a struggle that allows every worker to be the best in their field. It will be a form of compensation for powerlessness caused by authoritarian influences. People will present their competitive power in their workplaces. That power will be recognized by society and will surely satisfy the workers. Therefore, there is no doubt that work competition is more acceptable than all other forms of competition because it brings socially beneficial results and contributes to the well-being of society.

 

In socialism, work will no longer be privileged. Revoked privileges will eliminate the power of people over people, that is, the mechanism of exploitation of people, which is the basis of problems in society. Under socialism, all workers will be equal in labour and wage distribution. Everyone will be able to choose a job they like to do and be satisfied with the income earned.

 

Labour competition will not allow anyone to sleep on their laurels. Over time, one can expect tiredness and satiation from over-intensive action on a broad social level so that ambitions will subside. Such an orientation will form a balance between man’s natural needs and possibilities. Freedom in socialism will enable workers to follow work processes with interest, develop a critical attitude and act on their strengths. This path will allow workers to examine the validity of the premises that guided them to form their needs. This will contribute to the formation of objective values ​​in production.

 

In this way, people will get closer to their nature and find values ​​that stem from their nature. Socialism will contribute to removing the subjective vision of reality imposed by the authorities throughout humanity’s history, which is the basis of alienation and problems in society. It is a process of disalienation. This will bring values ​​that allow people to find their balance and satisfaction.

 

In socialism, people will accept their helplessness where they cannot overcome it and find fields where they can objectively exercise their power and thus satisfy their needs. People who manage to meet their needs constantly are not destructive. Such people would have no depression, neurosis, or psychosis and are not alcoholics, drug addicts, masochists, sadists, or aggressive. The process of disalienation will make people live responsible life. Socialism will enable the productive and constructive orientation of people, and then they will believe in prosperity based on productivity, solidarity, and reciprocity. Then one can believe in peace, love, and the joy of living.

 

Then, society will form a constructive attitude towards young people. This relationship will no longer be authoritative because no person in the community will be subordinated to authoritarian forces. It can be assumed that such a society will form a natural way of life with natural needs. The population will give up alienated ambitions to create healthy relationships in society. Relationships will be formed in which adults will respect young people and where mutual contradictions will be resolved by agreement. Relationships will be formed to enable a person to develop appropriately from an early age. And only then can society find its long-term constructive orientation.